Handbook of air pollution from internal combustion engines : pollutant formation and control

Contents List of Contributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix PART I OVERViEW . 1. Motor Vehicle Emissions Control: Past Achievements, Future Prospects 3 John B. Heywood Sun Jae Professor ofMechanical Engineering, Director, Sloan Automotive Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, United States 1.1 Synopsis...................................... 4 1.2 Introduction................................... 4 1.3 Motor Vehicles and Air Pollution 5 1.4 The Science of Pollutant Formation and Control . . . . . . . . 9 1.5 Effectiveness of Current Emission Control Technology . . . 15 1.6 Direct-Injection Engines, Two-Strokes, and Diesels. . . . . . 17 1.7 Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 References 23 PART II GLOBAL ASPECTS 2. Environment Aspects of Air Pollution 25 27 Eran Sher Department ofMechanical Engineering, The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer Sheva, Israel 2.1 Introduction................................... 28 vii viii Contents 2.2 Global Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 2.3 Regional Effects 35 References 41 3. Health Aspects of Air Pollution 42 Rafael S. Carel Division of Community Medicine, Faculty ofHealth Sciences, Soroka Medical Center, Beer-Sheva, Israel 3.1 Anatomy and Physiology of the Respiratory System ..... 43 3.2 Defense Mechanisms of the Lung .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 3.3 Ventilatory Function Tests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 3.4 Principles of Inhalation Injuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 3.5 Airborne Pollutants Causing Cancer and other Diseases .. 63 References 64 4. Economic and Planning Aspects of Transportation Emission 65 Pnina o. Plaut Faculty ofArchitecture and Town Planning, Technion, Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel Steven E. Plaut Graduate School ofBusiness Administration, University ofHaifa, Haifa, Israel 4.1 Introduction................................... 66 4.2 The Notion of Optimal Pollution Abatement and Control. 68 4.3 Alternative Sets of Abatement Policies for Mobile- Source Emissions 72 4.4 Administrative Methods of Pollution Emissions Control .. 77 4.5 Indirect Pricing Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 4.6 Conclusions................................... 86 References 87 PART III SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES 5. Introductory Chapter. Overview and the Role of Engines with Optical Access 91 93 Richard Stone Department ofEngineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom 5.1 Introduction................................... 94 5.2 Engines with Optical Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 5.3 High-Speed Photography 98 5.4 Flame Front Detection 102 5.5 Mixture Preparation and Combustion Diagnostics. . . . . . . 105 Contents ix 5.6 Some Applications of Engines with Optical Access. . . . . . 112 5.7 Conclusions................................... 115 References 115 6. Combustion-Related Emissions in 51 Engines 118 Simone Hochgreb Department ofMechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Massachusetts, United States 6.1 Introduction................................... 119 6.2 NOxFormation................................. 124 6.3 Carbon Monoxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 6.4 He Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 6.5 Summary..................................... 163 References 164 7. Pollution from Rotary Internal Combustion Engines 171 Mark Dulger Deparment ofMechanical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel 7.1 Introduction................................... 171 7.2 Sources of Hydrocarbon Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 References 188 8. Control Technologies in Spark-Ignition Engines 189 Brian E. Milton Nuffield Professor ofMechanical Engineering, Head of School, School ofMechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, The University ofNew South Wales, Sydney, Australia 8.1 Global and Local Emissions: A Brief Overview of the Problem 190 8.2 Global Emissions from SI Engines 205 8.3 Engine Control Factors for Local Emissions 209 8.4 Transient Operation of Engines and the Effect on Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 8.5 Some Details of Control Systems 222 8.6 Developments for the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 References 255 PART IV COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 259 9. Introduction 261 Franz F. Pischinger FEV Motorentechnik GmbH and Co KG, Aachen, Germany 9.1 The Diesel Engine for Cars-Is There a Future? 262 x Contents 9.2 State of Technology 265 9.3 Technology for the Future. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 9.4 Summary and Conclusions 278 10. Combustion-Related Emissions in CI Engines 280 1. Gary Hawley, Chris J. Brace, and Frank J. Wallace Department of Mechanical Engineering, University ofBath, Bath, United Kingdom Roy W Horrocks Diesel Engine Powertrain, Ford Motor Co. Ltd. Laindon, United Kingdom 10.1 Introduction................................... 281 10.2 Review of Current and Projected Emissions Concems- General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 10.3 High-Speed DI Diesel Developments 285 10.4 Overview of Emissions from CI Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 10.5 Current and Projected Global Emissions Legislative Requirements 301 10.6 Advanced Emission Reduction Strategies for the Year 2000 and Beyond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 10.7 Steady-State and Transient Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 10.8 Application of Computational Tools Toward Predicting and Reducing Emissions 341 10.9 Advance Engineering Project 350 References 353 11. Control Technologies in Compression-Ignition Engines 358 Stephen 1. Charlton Director, Advanced Diesel Engine Technology, Cummins Engine Company, Inc., Indiana, United States 11.1 Introduction................................... 359 11.2 Electronic Fuel Systems for Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 11.3 Basic Principles of Electronic Control for Diesel Engines. 374 11.4 Electronic Hardware for Diesel Engine Control . . . . . . . . . 390 11.5 Exhaust Aftertreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 References 417 PART V lWO-STROKE ENGINES 421 12. Introductory Chapter: From a Simple Engine to an Electrically Controlled Gasdynamic System 423 Cornel C. Stan FTZ Research and Technology Association Zwickau, Westsaxon Institute ofZwickau, Zwickau, Germany 12.1 Introduction................................... 424 Contents xi 12.2 Pollution Formation 426 12.3 Methods of Mixture Preparation 429 12.4 Techniques to Reduce Pollution 433 12.5 The Future of the Two-Stroke Engine 436 References 442 13. Air Pollution from Small Two-Stroke Engines and Technologies to Control It 441 Yuji Ikeda and Tsuyoshi Nakjima Department ofMechanical Engineering, Kobe University, Rokkodai, Nada, Kobe, Japan Eran Sher Department ofMechanical Engineering, The Pearlstone Center for Aeronautical Engineering Studies, Ben-Gurion University, Beer-Sheva, Israel 13.1 Pollutant Formation 442 13.2 Pollutant Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 13.3 Flow and Emission Diagnostics (Experimental Results) .. 456 References 473 14. Air Pollution from Large Two-Stroke Diesel Engines and Technologies to Control It 477 Svend Henningsen MAN B&WDiesel AlS, R&D Department, Copenhagen, Denmark 14.1 Introduction................................... 478 14.2 Regulated Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 14.3 Exhaust Emissions 482 14.4 Exhaust Emission ControlTechnologies-NOx Reduction Techniques 494 14.5 Exhaust Emission Control Technologies-Reduction of Other Pollutants 516 References 530 PART VI FUELS 535 15. Introductory Chapter: Fuel Effects 537 David R. Blackmore Shell Research and Technology Centre, Shell Research Ltd., Thornton, Chester, United Kingdom 15.1 Historical Landmarks 538 15.2 Recent Developments 541 15.3 The Future 544 15.4 In Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 xii 16. Fuel Effects on Emissions Contents 547 Yoram Zvirin, Marcel Gutman and Leonid Tartakovsky Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion, Haifa, Israel 16.1 Background 548 16.2 Gasolines (SI Engines) 550 16.3 Diesel Fuels (CI Engines) 575 16.4 Alternative Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 References 619 Appendix: 1 National Gasoline Specifications 624 Appendix: 2 National Specifications for Automotive Diesel Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Appendix: 3 US EPA Models for Calculation of Fuel Effects on Exhaust Emissions 645 Index 653