Air quality assessment and management : a practical guide

Preface xiii Dedication Acknowledgements xv 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Air pollution—a concern 1 1.3 Book format 3 2 AIR POLLUTION SOURCES AND TYPES 4 2.1 Introduction 4 2.2 Composition of the atmosphere 4 2.3 Air pollution sources 5 2.4 Types of pollutants and their sources 7 2.4.1 Carcinogenic pollutants 9 2.4.2 Carbon monoxide 10 2.4.3 Carbon dioxide 11 2.4.4 Lead 12 2.4.5 Nitrogen dioxide 13 2.4.6 Ozone 14 2.4.7 Particulates 16 2.4.8 Sulphur dioxide 17 2.4.9 Dioxins and furans 19 2.4.10 Other pollutants 21 2.5 Trends in air quality 23 2.5.1 Carbon monoxide 23 2.5.2 Lead 23 2.5.3 Nitrogen dioxide 23 2.5.4 Sulphur dioxide 24 2.5.5 Carbon dioxide 25 2.5.6 Ozone 25 2.6 Indoor air pollution 25 2.6.1 Smoking 29 3 EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION 30 3.1 Introduction 30 3.2 Human health 30 3.2.1 Smogs and air pollution episodes 30 3.2.2 Assessing health effects 34 3.2.3 Asthma 35 3.2.4 Health effects of specific air pollutants 35 3.3 Flora 41 3.4 Fauna 42 3.5 Ecosystems 43 3.6 Materials 43 3.7 Visibility (particle haze) 45 3.7.1 Visual range 46 3.8 Strategic air quality issues 46 3.8.1 Acid rain 46 3.8.2 Ozone depletion 48 3.8.3 Greenhouse effect 49 4 EMISSION INVENTORIES 53 4.1 Introduction 53 4.2 The purpose of emission inventories 53 4.3 Atmospheric emission inventory initiatives 54 4.4 Types of emission release and sources 56 4.4.1 Industrial emissions 56 4.4.2 Domestic emissions 58 4.4.3 Agricultural emissions 59 4.4.4 Motor vehicle emissions 59 4.4.5 Aircraft emissions 61 4.5 Information requirements 61 4.6 Examples of national emission inventories 63 4.6.1 UK national atmospheric emissions inventory 63 4.6.2 European emission inventories 65 4.6.3 Canadian national emission inventory 66 4.6.4 US national emission inventory 67 4.7 Transboundary emissions 67 4.7.1 Terrestrial 67 4.7.2 Marine 69 4.8 Pollution emission trends 4.9 Exercise 73 5 AIR POLLUTION MONITORING 74 5.1 Introduction 74 5.2 Forms of monitoring 74 5.3 Site selection 74 5.4 Monitoring strategies 75 5.5 Monitoring standards and accreditation 77 5.6 Monitoring methods and techniques 77 5.6.1 Methods of measurement 77 5.6.2 Measurement techniques 81 5.6.3 Particulate measurement 82 5.6.4 Carbon monoxide 86 5.6.5 Sulphur dioxide 86 5.6.6 Oxides of nitrogen 87 5.6.7 Ozone 87 5.6.8 Volatile organic compounds 87 5.6.9 Lead 88 5.7 Odour measurement 88 5.8 Other equipment 89 5.9 Monitoring networks 89 5.9.1 GEMS 89 5.9.2 National and municipal air quality monitoring networks 93 5.10 Source monitoring 97 5.10.1 Point source monitoring 97 5.10.2 Mobile sources 99 6 IMPACT PREDICTION 102 6.1 Introduction 102 6.2 Mechanisms for dispersion 102 6.2.1 Wind speed and direction 103 6.2.2 Atmospheric turbulence 104 6.2.3 Temperature inversions 105 6.2.4 Topography 106 6.2.5 Plume formation 107 6.3 Air dispersion modelling 108 6.3.1 What is a model? 110 6.4 Model characteristics 111 6.4.1 Time and space scales6.4.2 Frame of reference 112 6.4.3 Pollutants and reaction mechanisms 112 6.4.4 Treatment of turbulence 112 6.4.5 Topography 112 6.4.6 Plume additivity (treatment of multiple sources) 112 6.4.7 Model accuracy and limitations 112 6.5 Data requirements 114 6.6 Air dispersion modelling procedures 114 6.7 Stack height determination 115 6.8 Plume rise 117 6.9 Gaussian modelling 118 6.9.1 Extrapolating time average concentrations 120 6.10 Box models 120 6.11 Linear models 121 6.12 Physical models 121 6.13 Types of air dispersion models 121 6.14 Exercise 123 7 IMPACT SIGNIFICANCE AND LEGISLATION 126 7.1 Introduction 126 7.2 Impact significance 126 7.2.1 EU air quality standards 127 7.2.2 World Health Organisation air quality guidelines 129 7.2.3 National air quality standards 131 7.2.4 Derived air quality standards 133 7.3 Air pollution indices 134 7.4 Risk assessment 137 7.5 Nuisance 140 7.5.1 Particulates 140 7.5.2 Odour 141 7.5.3 Visibility 145 7.6 Flora 146 7.7 Indoor air pollution 147 7.8 Pollution episodes 147 7.9 Air pollution legislation 148 7.9.1 Greenhouse gases 149 7.9.2 Ozone layer 149 7.9.3 International conventions 150 7.9.4 European Union 151 7.9.5 World Health Organisation 153 7.10 National air pollution control regimes 153 7.10.1 UK air pollution control regime 153 7.10.2 US air pollution control regime 155 7.10.3 Japanese air pollution control regime 156 7.10.4 Singaporean air pollution control regime 156 7.10.5 People’s Republic of China legislative system 156 7.11 Public awareness 157 8 MITIGATION, CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT 159 8.1 Introduction 159 8.2 What is mitigation and control? 159 8.3 Control of fugitive emissions 159 8.3.1 Fugitive dust control 160 8.3.2 Fugitive gaseous control 161 8.3.3 Visual inspections 162 8.4 Techniques for the control of gaseous emissions 163 8.4.1 General abatement techniques 163 8.4.2 Control of oxides of nitrogen 168 8.4.3 Control of sulphur dioxide 168 8.4.4 Odour control 169 8.4.5 Control of dioxin emissions 170 8.5 Techniques for the control of participate emissions 171 8.5.1 Gravity settler 172 8.5.2 Cyclone 172 8.5.3 Fabric or bag filters 172 8.5.4 Electrostatic precipitators 173 8.5.5 Wet scrubber 174 8.5.6 Equipment selection 175 8.6 Control of emissions from agricultural practices 176 8.7 Flaring 176 8.8 Control of emissions from motor vehicles 177 8.9 Cost effectiveness 179 8.10 Air quality management 180 8.10.1 AQM process 180 8.10.2 Air quality management in the UK 182 8.10.3 Designation of air quality management areas 8.10.4 Air quality action plans 183 9 SITE INSPECTION AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 185 9.1 Introduction 185 9.2 Process inspection 185 9.2.1 Presentation to management 185 9.2.2 Orientation tour 186 9.2.3 Techniques 186 9.2.4 Verification techniques 188 9.2.5 Inspection findings 188 9.2.6 Close out meeting 188 9.3 Project management 189 9.3.1 Report writing 190 9.3.2 Financial control 190 10 CASE STUDIES 192 10.1 Introduction 192 10.2 Case Study 1—Screening air quality monitoring study 192 10.3 Case Study 2—Indoor air quality health assessment 194 10.4 Case Study 3—Emission inventory 195 10.5 Case Study 4—Baseline air quality monitoring study 199 10.5.1 Sulphur dioxide and smoke 199 10.5.2 Nitrogen dioxide 201 10.5.3 Monitoring 203 10.6 Case Study 5—Air dispersion modelling study 203 10.7 Case Study 6—Quantitative health risk assessment 204 10.8 Case Study 7—Air quality management 206 10.8.1 Screening study 211 10.8.2 Long-tenu calculations 213 10.8.3 Areas of expected exceedences of air quality objectives 216 10.9 Case Study 8—Emission control 216 10.10 Case Study 9—Spireslack open cast coal site 217 10.10.1 Method of assessment 217 10.10.2 Baseline air quality and meteorological conditions 217 10.10.3 The proposed development 219 10.10.4 Potential emissions 219 10.10.5 Mitigation measures 221 10.10.6 Environmental consequences 221 10.11 Case Study 10—Power station air dispersion modelling study 22110.11.1 Meteorological data 222 10.11.2 Modelling parameters 222 10.11.3 Modelling results 223 10.11.4 Assessment of predicted concentrations 224 10.11.5 Comparison of predicted deposition levels with critical load levels 224 10.11.6 Environmental consequences 224 10.12 Case Study 11—Widening of the Tolo/Fanling highway between the Island House Interchange and Fanling (Hong Kong), People’s Republic of China 225 10.12.1 Description of study area 225 10.12.2 Construction phase air quality impacts 228 10.12.3 Operational phase air quality impacts 229 10.12.4 Environmental consequences 230 10.13 Case Study 12—Emission inventory of VOCs 230 10.14 Case Study 13—Assessment of air quality data 232 10.15 Case Study 14—A comparison of model predictions and baseline monitoring data 232 Epilogue 236 Appendix 238 A1 Terminology 238 A2 Pollutants 242 A3 Units 244 A4 Annotations 246 A5 Useful contact details 247 A.5.1 National environmental agencies 247 A.5.2 International institutions 248 A6 Conversion tables 248 References 250 Country index 260 Subject index 262 xii