Microbiologically safe foods

CONTRIBUTORS xix FOREWORD xxiii PREFACE xxvii I MICROBIAL FOOD HAZARDS 1 1 PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACT OF FOODBORNE ILLNESS: IMPETUS FOR THE INTERNATIONAL FOOD SAFETY EFFORT 3 Irene V. Wesley 1.1 Introduction / 3 1.2 Statistical Estimates / 3 1.3 Impact of Representative Foodborne Pathogens / 5 1.4 National Microbial Baseline Surveys / 10 1.5 Global Marketplace / 10 References / 11 2 FOODBORNE PATHOGENS AND TOXINS: AN OVERVIEW 15 Santos Garc´ıa and Norma Heredia 2.1 Introduction / 15 2.2 Aeromonas / 15 2.3 Arcobacter / 17 vii viii CONTENTS 2.4 Bacillus cereus / 18 2.5 Brucella / 19 2.6 Campylobacter / 20 2.7 Clostridium botulinum / 22 2.8 Clostridium perfringens / 24 2.9 Escherichia coli / 25 2.10 Listeria / 28 2.11 Plesiomonas shigelloides / 30 2.12 Salmonella / 30 2.13 Shigella / 32 2.14 Staphylococcus aureus / 33 2.15 Vibrio / 34 2.16 Yersinia / 36 2.17 Mycotoxins and Fungi / 37 2.18 Cryptosporidium / 40 2.19 Cyclospora / 41 2.20 Entamoeba / 41 2.21 Giardia / 42 2.22 Anisakis simplex / 43 2.23 Ascaris / 44 2.24 Diphyllobothrium latum / 45 2.25 Taenia / 45 2.26 Trichinella spiralis / 46 2.27 Hepatitis A and E Viruses / 46 2.28 Norovirus / 48 References / 49 II EMERGING ISSUES 53 3 CRONOBACTER GEN. NOV. (ENTEROBACTER) SAKAZAKII: CURRENT KNOWLEDGE AND FUTURE CONSIDERATIONS 55 Genisis Iris Dancer and Dong-Hyun Kang 3.1 Introduction / 55 3.2 History of Illness Caused by (E). sakazakii / 56 3.3 Infant Susceptibility / 57 3.4 Novel Prevention Strategies / 59 3.5 Infant Formula Processing / 59 3.6 Biochemical Characterization and Taxonomy / 60 CONTENTS ix 3.7 Environmental Sources of (E). sakazakii / 62 3.8 Resistance and Virulence Factors of (E). sakazakii / 63 3.9 Current Isolation and Detection Techniques / 71 References / 74 4 PRION DISEASES 81 Debbie McKenzie and Judd Aiken 4.1 Introduction / 81 4.2 Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies / 82 4.3 Nature of the Illness Caused / 86 4.4 Pathogenesis / 86 4.5 Characteristics of the Agent / 87 4.6 Epidemiology / 91 4.7 PrPSc Detection / 92 4.8 Physical Means of Destruction of the Organism / 94 4.9 Prevention and Control Measures / 95 References / 96 5 AVIAN INFLUENZA A (H5N1): POTENTIAL THREAT TO FOOD SAFETY 99 James Mark Simmerman and Peter K. Ben Embarek 5.1 Introduction / 99 5.2 Emergence of H5N1 Avian Influenza / 100 5.3 Epidemiology of Human H5N1 Infection / 101 5.4 Clinical Presentation and Laboratory Diagnosis / 102 5.5 Food Safety Considerations / 104 5.6 Global Response / 106 References / 107 III FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF SPECIFIC COMMODITIES 113 6 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF BEEF 115 Robin C. Anderson, Steven C. Ricke, Bwalya Lungu, Michael G. Johnson, Christy Oliver, Shane M. Horrocks, and David J. Nisbet 6.1 Introduction / 115 6.2 Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Beef / 115 6.3 Salmonella in Beef / 120 x CONTENTS 6.4 Listeria in Beef / 122 6.5 Campylobacter in Beef / 124 6.6 Control of Foodborne Pathogens in Beef / 126 6.7 Conclusions / 130 References / 130 7 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF MILK AND DAIRY PRODUCTS 147 Mansel W. Griffiths 7.1 Introduction / 147 7.2 Microflora of Raw Milk / 148 7.3 Public Health Concerns from Dairy Products / 154 7.4 Milk and Cream / 155 7.5 Cheese and Fermented Dairy Products / 158 7.6 Ice Cream / 159 7.7 Butter / 160 7.8 Milk Powder / 160 7.9 Detection of Microorganisms in Milk / 161 7.10 Novel Processing Methods / 161 7.11 Global Trade and Regulations / 162 References / 162 8 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF POULTRY 169 Irene V. Wesley 8.1 Introduction / 169 8.2 Characteristics of Foodborne Illness / 170 8.3 Approaches to Maintaining Product Quality and Reducing the Number of Microorganisms / 172 8.4 Conclusions / 183 References / 183 9 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS 187 Jean-Yves D’Aoust 9.1 Shell Egg Development and Structure / 187 9.2 Microflora of Shell Eggs / 191 9.3 Significance of the Detection of Salmonella / 193 9.4 Eggborne Outbreaks of Human Salmonellosis / 196 CONTENTS xi 9.5 Thermal Processing of Egg Products / 198 9.6 Potentially Hazardous Egg Products in the Home / 200 9.7 Control / 202 References / 206 10 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF PORK 209 Gay Y. Miller and James S. Dickson 10.1 Introduction / 209 10.2 Normal Flora of Raw Pork / 210 10.3 Spoilage / 211 10.4 Pathogens of Concern / 212 10.5 Risk of Contamination During Processing / 213 10.6 Survival and Growth of Pathogens and Spoilage Organisms in Pork Products / 217 10.7 Indicator Microorganisms / 218 10.8 Maintaining Product Quality and Reducing the Number of Microorganisms / 220 10.9 Microbiological Methods for Detection and Quantification / 221 10.10 Regulations / 222 References / 224 11 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF FISH AND SHELLFISH 227 Lucio Galaviz-Silva, Gracia Gom´ez-Anduro, Zinnia J. Molina-Garza, and Felipe Ascencio-Valle 11.1 Introduction / 227 11.2 Normal Flora of Fish and Shellfish / 228 11.3 Microbial Hazards and Preventive Measures / 229 11.4 Spoilage / 235 11.5 Seafood Processing and Food Safety / 237 11.6 Product Quality and Microorganism Reduction Methods / 241 11.7 Microbiological Methods for Detection and Quantification of Seafood Pathogens / 242 11.8 Food Safety Challenges for Aquaculture and the Commercial Fishing Industry / 243 11.9 Effects of Climate on Waterborne and Foodborne Seafood Pathogens / 245 11.10 Conclusions / 246 References / 247 xii CONTENTS 12 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF FRUITS AND VEGETABLES 255 Juan S. Le´on, Lee-Ann Jaykus, and Christine L. Moe 12.1 Introduction / 255 12.2 Normal Microflora of Fresh Produce / 257 12.3 Spoilage of Fresh Produce / 257 12.4 Human Pathogens Associated with Produce / 258 12.5 Factors that Influence Survival and Growth of Organisms / 259 12.6 Microbiological Methods for Detection and Quantification / 263 12.7 Indicator Microorganisms / 264 12.8 Sources of Produce Contamination / 265 12.9 Maintaining Produce Quality and Reducing the Number of Microorganisms / 269 12.10 Regulations / 276 12.11 Conclusions / 281 References / 282 13 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF FRUIT BEVERAGES AND BOTTLED WATER 291 Mickey E. Parish 13.1 Introduction / 291 13.2 Normal Microflora / 291 13.3 Spoilage / 293 13.4 Pathogens / 295 13.5 Maintaining Product Quality and Reducing Microbial Numbers / 298 13.6 U.S. Regulations / 299 References / 301 14 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF CANNED AND FROZEN FOODS 305 Nina G. Parkinson 14.1 Introduction / 305 14.2 History of Canned Foods / 305 14.3 Categories of Canned Foods / 307 14.4 Safety of Canned Foods / 307 14.5 Microbial Spoilage of Canned Foods / 308 14.6 History of Frozen Foods / 309 CONTENTS xiii 14.7 Principles of Frozen Food Preservation / 310 14.8 Safety and Spoilage of Frozen Foods / 310 14.9 U.S. Regulations / 311 References / 312 15 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS 315 Lloyd B. Bullerman and Andreia Bianchini 15.1 Introduction / 315 15.2 Health Implications of Fungal Deterioration of Grains / 317 15.3 Mycotoxins / 318 15.4 Media and Methods for Molds and Mycotoxins / 328 References / 330 16 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF SPICES AND HERBS 337 Keith A. Ito 16.1 Introduction / 337 16.2 Use of Spices and Herbs in Foods / 338 16.3 Antimicrobial Effects / 339 16.4 Contamination of Spices and Herbs / 345 16.5 Recalls and Outbreaks / 347 16.6 Control Procedures / 348 16.7 Conclusions / 349 References / 349 17 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF MAYONNAISE, SALAD DRESSINGS, ACIDIC CONDIMENTS, AND MAYONNAISE-BASED SALADS 353 Larry R. Beuchat 17.1 Introduction / 353 17.2 Mayonnaise / 354 17.3 Salad Dressings and Sauces / 359 17.4 Acidic Condiments / 360 17.5 Salads, Sandwiches, and Other Ready-to-Eat Foods Containing Mayonnaise and Acidic Condiments / 361 References / 364 xiv CONTENTS 18 FOOD SAFETY ISSUES AND THE MICROBIOLOGY OF CHOCOLATE AND SWEETENERS 367 Norma Heredia and Santos Garc´ıa 18.1 Introduction / 367 18.2 Normal Flora of Raw and Fermented Cocoa Beans / 367 18.3 Spoilage and Shelf Life of Chocolate / 368 18.4 Pathogens in Confectionery Products / 369 18.5 Sources of Contamination / 369 18.6 Factors that Influence Survival and Growth of Pathogens and Spoilage Organisms / 371 18.7 Maintaining Product Quality and Reducing Microbial Numbers / 372 18.8 Microbiological Methods for Detection and Quantification / 373 18.9 Regulations / 374 References / 374 IV PREVENTION AND CONTROL STRATEGIES 377 19 MICROBIAL RISK ASSESSMENT 379 Marianne D. Miliotis and Robert L. Buchanan 19.1 Introduction / 379 19.2 Risk Assessment Framework / 381 19.3 Risk Assessment Analytical Tools / 384 19.4 Qualitative vs. Quantitative Risk Assessments / 385 19.5 Types of Risk Assessment / 387 19.6 Predictive Microbiology / 389 19.7 Using Risk Assessment to Make Risk Management Decisions / 390 References / 392 20 GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES 395 Olga I. Padilla-Zakour 20.1 Introduction / 395 20.2 Personnel / 396 20.3 Buildings and Facilities / 398 20.4 Sanitation / 401 20.5 Pest Control / 403 20.6 Equipment / 404 CONTENTS xv 20.7 Operations / 406 20.8 Warehousing and Distribution / 408 20.9 Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures / 408 References / 414 21 CLEANING AND SANITIZING OPERATIONS 415 Kevin Keener 21.1 Introduction / 415 21.2 Food Sanitation / 415 21.3 Food Regulations / 415 21.4 Sanitation Programs / 416 21.5 Sanitation Program Development / 421 21.6 Crisis Management: How to Survive a Recall / 430 21.7 Educational and Training Resources / 430 References / 432 22 HAZARD ANALYSIS OF CRITICAL CONTROL POINTS 435 Martin W. Bucknavage and Catherine Nettles Cutter 22.1 Introduction / 435 22.2 HACCP Fundamentals / 436 22.3 Conclusions / 455 References / 456 23 TRADITIONAL AND HIGH-TECHNOLOGY APPROACHES TO MICROBIAL SAFETY IN FOODS 459 Tatiana Koutchma 23.1 Introduction / 459 23.2 Thermal vs. Nonthermal Technology / 460 23.3 Establishment of Specifications for Preservation / 462 23.4 Technologies Based on Thermal Effects / 463 23.5 Technologies Based on Nonthermal Effects / 472 23.6 Conclusions / 481 References / 481 24 FOOD PRESERVATION TECHNIQUES OTHER THAN HEAT AND IRRADIATION 485 Ronald G. Labb´e and Linda L. Nolan 24.1 Introduction / 485 24.2 Traditional Physical Methods of Food Preservation / 485 xvi CONTENTS 24.3 Food Antimicrobials / 492 24.4 Preservatives from Biological Sources / 495 24.5 Hurdle Technology / 499 References / 500 25 FOOD SAFETY AND INNOVATIVE FOOD PACKAGING 507 Jung (John) H. Han 25.1 Introduction / 507 25.2 Innovative Packaging to Enhance Food Safety / 509 25.3 Conclusions / 520 References / 520 V DETECTION OF FOODBORNE PATHOGENS 523 26 TRADITIONAL METHODS FOR DETECTION OF FOODBORNE PATHOGENS 525 Luisa Sol´ıs, Eduardo S´anchez, Santos Garc´ıa, and Norma Heredia 26.1 Introduction / 525 26.2 General Quantification Methods / 525 26.3 Quantification and Detection Methods for Specific Microorganisms / 530 References / 543 27 RAPID METHODS FOR FOODBORNE BACTERIAL ENUMERATION AND PATHOGEN DETECTION 547 Peter Feng and Norma Heredia 27.1 Introduction / 547 27.2 Logistics of Food Testing / 548 27.3 Rapid Pathogen Testing Methods / 549 27.4 Rapid Enumeration Methods / 551 27.5 Logistics, Resources, and Applicability / 556 References / 558 28 LABORATORY ACCREDITATION AND PROFICIENCY TESTING 561 DeAnn L. Benesh 28.1 Introduction / 561 28.2 Laboratory Accreditation / 561 28.3 Proficiency Testing / 565 CONTENTS xvii 28.4 Global Perspectives / 566 References / 569 VI CURRENT AND FUTURE ISSUES IN FOOD SAFETY 571 29 BIOTERRORISM AND FOOD SAFETY 573 Barbara. A. Rasco and Gleyn E. Bledsoe 29.1 Introduction / 573 29.2 The Need for Protective Food Security Programs / 573 29.3 Vulnerability Assessment / 574 29.4 Emergency Response and Product Recovery / 575 29.5 Prevention as the First Line of Defense / 575 29.6 Development of a Food Security Plan Based on HACCP Principles / 576 29.7 Evaluating Security Risks and Identifying Hazards / 583 29.8 Managing Risk: Preventive Measures / 585 29.9 Security Strategies / 585 Appendix: An Example / 591 References / 599 30 PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY: GROWTH IN SILICO 601 Mark L. Tamplin 30.1 Introduction / 601 30.2 Applications of Predictive Microbiology in the Food Industry / 601 30.3 Models / 603 30.4 Tools in Predictive Microbiology / 604 30.5 Databases to Support Predictive Microbiology / 607 30.6 Conclusions / 608 References / 608 31 ROLE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS IN FOOD SAFETY 611 Fidel Guevara-Lara 31.1 Introduction / 611 31.2 Genetically Modified Foods in the World Market / 612 31.3 Potential of GMOs to Increase Food Safety / 615 xviii CONTENTS 31.4 Increased Safety of GMOs for the Environment and Human Health / 623 31.5 Food Safety Issues and Public Concerns Regarding GMOs / 625 31.6 Conclusions / 626 References / 628