Chemical process design and integration

Preface xiii Acknowledgements xv Nomenclature xvii Chapter 1 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration 1 1.1 Chemical Products 1 1.2 Formulation of the Design Problem 3 1.3 Chemical Process Design and Integration 4 1.4 The Hierarchy of Chemical Process Design and Integration 5 1.5 Continuous and Batch Processes 9 1.6 New Design and Retrofit 10 1.7 Approaches to Chemical Process Design and Integration 11 1.8 Process Control 13 1.9 The Nature of Chemical Process Design and Integration – Summary 14 References 14 Chapter 2 Process Economics 17 2.1 The Role of Process Economics 17 2.2 Capital Cost for New Design 17 2.3 Capital Cost for Retrofit 23 2.4 Annualized Capital Cost 24 2.5 Operating Cost 25 2.6 Simple Economic Criteria 28 2.7 Project Cash Flow and Economic Evaluation 29 2.8 Investment Criteria 30 2.9 Process Economics – Summary 31 2.10 Exercises 32 References 33 Chapter 3 Optimization 35 3.1 Objective Functions 35 3.2 Single-variable Optimization 37 3.3 Multivariable Optimization 38 3.4 Constrained Optimization 42 3.5 Linear Programming 43 3.6 Nonlinear Programming 45 3.7 Profile Optimization 46 3.8 Structural Optimization 48 3.9 Solution of Equations using Optimization 52 3.10 The Search for Global Optimality 53 3.11 Summary – Optimization 54 3.12 Exercises 54 References 56 Chapter 4 Thermodynamic Properties and Phase Equilibrium 57 4.1 Equations of State 57 4.2 Phase Equilibrium for Single Components 59 4.3 Fugacity and Phase Equilibrium 60 4.4 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 60 4.5 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Activity Coefficient Models 62 4.6 Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium Based on Equations of State 64 4.7 Calculation of Vapor–Liquid Equilibrium 64 4.8 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium 70 4.9 Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium Activity Coefficient Models 71 4.10 Calculation of Liquid–Liquid Equilibrium 71 4.11 Calculation of Enthalpy 72 4.12 Calculation of Entropy 74 4.13 Phase Equilibrium and Thermodynamic Properties – Summary 74 4.14 Exercises 74 References 76 Chapter 5 Choice of Reactor I – Reactor Performance 77 5.1 Reaction Path 77 5.2 Types of Reaction Systems 78 5.3 Reactor Performance 81 5.4 Rate of Reaction 82 5.5 Idealized Reactor Models 83 5.6 Choice of Idealized Reactor Model 90 5.7 Choice of Reactor Performance 94 viii Contents 5.8 Choice of Reactor Performance – Summary 94 5.9 Exercises 95 References 96 Chapter 6 Choice of Reactor II - Reactor Conditions 97 6.1 Reaction Equilibrium 97 6.2 Reactor Temperature 100 6.3 Reactor Pressure 107 6.4 Reactor Phase 108 6.5 Reactor Concentration 109 6.6 Biochemical Reactions 114 6.7 Catalysts 114 6.8 Choice of Reactor Conditions – Summary 117 6.9 Exercises 118 References 120 Chapter 7 Choice of Reactor III – Reactor Configuration 121 7.1 Temperature Control 121 7.2 Catalyst Degradation 123 7.3 Gas–Liquid and Liquid–Liquid Reactors 124 7.4 Reactor Configuration 127 7.5 Reactor Configuration for Heterogeneous Solid-Catalyzed Reactions 133 7.6 Reactor Configuration from Optimization of a Superstructure 133 7.7 Choice of Reactor Configuration – Summary 139 7.8 Exercises 139 References 140 Chapter 8 Choice of Separator for Heterogeneous Mixtures 143 8.1 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Separation 143 8.2 Settling and Sedimentation 143 8.3 Inertial and Centrifugal Separation 147 8.4 Electrostatic Precipitation 149 8.5 Filtration 150 8.6 Scrubbing 151 8.7 Flotation 152 8.8 Drying 153 8.9 Separation of Heterogeneous Mixtures – Summary 154 8.10 Exercises 154 References 155 Chapter 9 Choice of Separator for Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures I – Distillation 157 9.1 Single-Stage Separation 157 9.2 Distillation 157 9.3 Binary Distillation 160 9.4 Total and Minimum Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures 163 9.5 Finite Reflux Conditions for Multicomponent Mixtures 170 9.6 Choice of Operating Conditions 175 9.7 Limitations of Distillation 176 9.8 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Distillation – Summary 177 9.9 Exercises 178 References 179 Chapter 10 Choice of Separator for Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures II – Other Methods 181 10.1 Absorption and Stripping 181 10.2 Liquid–Liquid Extraction 184 10.3 Adsorption 189 10.4 Membranes 193 10.5 Crystallization 203 10.6 Evaporation 206 10.7 Separation of Homogeneous Fluid Mixtures by Other Methods – Summary 208 10.8 Exercises 209 References 209 Chapter 11 Distillation Sequencing 211 11.1 Distillation Sequencing Using Simple Columns 211 11.2 Practical Constraints Restricting Options 211 11.3 Choice of Sequence for Simple Nonintegrated Distillation Columns 212 11.4 Distillation Sequencing Using Columns With More Than Two Products 217 11.5 Distillation Sequencing Using Thermal Coupling 220 11.6 Retrofit of Distillation Sequences 224 11.7 Crude Oil Distillation 225 11.8 Distillation Sequencing Using Optimization of a Superstructure 228 11.9 Distillation Sequencing – Summary 230 11.10 Exercises 231 References 232 Contents ix Chapter 12 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation 235 12.1 Azeotropic Systems 235 12.2 Change in Pressure 235 12.3 Representation of Azeotropic Distillation 236 12.4 Distillation at Total Reflux Conditions 238 12.5 Distillation at Minimum Reflux Conditions 242 12.6 Distillation at Finite Reflux Conditions 243 12.7 Distillation Sequencing Using an Entrainer 246 12.8 Heterogeneous Azeotropic Distillation 251 12.9 Entrainer Selection 253 12.10 Trade-offs in Azeotropic Distillation 255 12.11 Multicomponent Systems 255 12.12 Membrane Separation 255 12.13 Distillation Sequencing for Azeotropic Distillation – Summary 256 12.14 Exercises 257 References 258 Chapter 13 Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Continuous Processes 259 13.1 The Function of Process Recycles 259 13.2 Recycles with Purges 264 13.3 Pumping and Compression 267 13.4 Simulation of Recycles 276 13.5 The Process Yield 280 13.6 Optimization of Reactor Conversion 281 13.7 Optimization of Processes Involving a Purge 283 13.8 Hybrid Reaction and Separation 284 13.9 Feed, Product and Intermediate Storage 286 13.10 Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Continuous Processes – Summary 288 13.11 Exercises 289 References 290 Chapter 14 Reaction, Separation and Recycle Systems for Batch Processes 291 14.1 Batch Processes 291 14.2 Batch Reactors 291 14.3 Batch Separation Processes 297 14.4 Gantt Charts 303 14.5 Production Schedules for Single Products 304 14.6 Production Schedules for Multiple Products 305 14.7 Equipment Cleaning and Material Transfer 306 14.8 Synthesis of Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes 307 14.9 Optimization of Batch Processes 311 14.10 Storage in Batch Processes 312 14.11 Reaction and Separation Systems for Batch Processes – Summary 313 14.12 Exercises 313 References 315 Chapter 15 Heat Exchanger Networks I – Heat Transfer Equipment 317 15.1 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficients 317 15.2 Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drops for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 319 15.3 Temperature Differences in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 324 15.4 Allocation of Fluids in Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers 329 15.5 Extended Surface Tubes 332 15.6 Retrofit of Heat Exchangers 333 15.7 Condensers 337 15.8 Reboilers and Vaporizers 342 15.9 Other Types of Heat Exchange Equipment 346 15.10 Fired Heaters 348 15.11 Heat Transfer Equipment – Summary 354 15.12 Exercises 354 References 356 Chapter 16 Heat Exchanger Networks II – Energy Targets 357 16.1 Composite Curves 357 16.2 The Heat Recovery Pinch 361 16.3 Threshold Problems 364 16.4 The Problem Table Algorithm 365 16.5 Nonglobal Minimum Temperature Differences 370 16.6 Process Constraints 370 16.7 Utility Selection 372 16.8 Furnaces 374 16.9 Cogeneration (Combined Heat and Power Generation) 376 16.10 Integration Of Heat Pumps 381 16.11 Heat Exchanger Network Energy Targets – Summary 383 x Contents 16.12 Exercises 383 References 385 Chapter 17 Heat Exchanger Networks III – Capital and Total Cost Targets 387 17.1 Number of Heat Exchange Units 387 17.2 Heat Exchange Area Targets 388 17.3 Number-of-shells Target 392 17.4 Capital Cost Targets 393 17.5 Total Cost Targets 395 17.6 Heat Exchanger Network and Utilities Capital and Total Costs – Summary 395 17.7 Exercises 396 References 397 Chapter 18 Heat Exchanger Networks IV – Network Design 399 18.1 The Pinch Design Method 399 18.2 Design for Threshold Problems 404 18.3 Stream Splitting 405 18.4 Design for Multiple Pinches 408 18.5 Remaining Problem Analysis 411 18.6 Network Optimization 413 18.7 The Superstructure Approach to Heat Exchanger Network Design 416 18.8 Retrofit of Heat Exchanger Networks 419 18.9 Addition of New Heat Transfer Area in Retrofit 424 18.10 Heat Exchanger Network Design – Summary 425 18.11 Exercises 425 References 428 Chapter 19 Heat Exchanger Networks V – Stream Data 429 19.1 Process Changes for Heat Integration 429 19.2 The Trade-Offs Between Process Changes, Utility Selection, Energy Cost and Capital Cost 429 19.3 Data Extraction 430 19.4 Heat Exchanger Network Stream Data – Summary 437 19.5 Exercises 437 References 438 Chapter 20 Heat Integration of Reactors 439 20.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Reactors 439 20.2 Appropriate Placement of Reactors 441 20.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Reactors 442 20.4 Evolving Reactor Design to Improve Heat Integration 443 20.5 Heat Integration of Reactors – Summary 444 Reference 444 Chapter 21 Heat Integration of Distillation Columns 445 21.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation 445 21.2 The Appropriate Placement of Distillation 445 21.3 Use of the Grand Composite Curve for Heat Integration of Distillation 446 21.4 Evolving the Design of Simple Distillation Columns to Improve Heat Integration 447 21.5 Heat Pumping in Distillation 449 21.6 Capital Cost Considerations 449 21.7 Heat Integration Characteristics of Distillation Sequences 450 21.8 Heat-integrated Distillation Sequences Based on the Optimization of a Superstructure 454 21.9 Heat Integration of Distillation Columns – Summary 455 21.10 Exercises 456 References 457 Chapter 22 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers 459 22.1 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Evaporators 459 22.2 Appropriate Placement of Evaporators 459 22.3 Evolving Evaporator Design to Improve Heat Integration 459 22.4 The Heat Integration Characteristics of Dryers 459 22.5 Evolving Dryer Design to Improve Heat Integration 460 22.6 Heat Integration of Evaporators and Dryers – Summary 461 Contents xi 22.7 Exercises 462 References 463 Chapter 23 Steam Systems and Cogeneration 465 23.1 Boiler Feedwater Treatment 466 23.2 Steam Boilers 468 23.3 Steam Turbines 471 23.4 Gas Turbines 477 23.5 Steam System Configuration 482 23.6 Steam and Power Balances 484 23.7 Site Composite Curves 487 23.8 Cogeneration Targets 490 23.9 Optimization of Steam Levels 493 23.10 Site Power-to-heat Ratio 496 23.11 Optimizing Steam Systems 498 23.12 Steam Costs 502 23.13 Choice of Driver 506 23.14 Steam Systems and Cogeneration – Summary 507 23.15 Exercises 508 References 510 Chapter 24 Cooling and Refrigeration Systems 513 24.1 Cooling Systems 513 24.2 Recirculating Cooling Water Systems 513 24.3 Targeting Minimum Cooling Water Flowrate 516 24.4 Design of Cooling Water Networks 518 24.5 Retrofit of Cooling Water Systems 524 24.6 Refrigeration Cycles 526 24.7 Process Expanders 530 24.8 Choice of Refrigerant for Compression Refrigeration 532 24.9 Targeting Refrigeration Power for Compression Refrigeration 535 24.10 Heat Integration of Compression Refrigeration Processes 539 24.11 Mixed Refrigerants for Compression Refrigeration 542 24.12 Absorption Refrigeration 544 24.13 Indirect Refrigeration 546 24.14 Cooling Water and Refrigeration Systems – Summary 546 24.15 Exercises 547 References 549 Chapter 25 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions 551 25.1 Atmospheric Pollution 551 25.2 Sources of Atmospheric Pollution 552 25.3 Control of Solid Particulate Emissions to Atmosphere 553 25.4 Control of VOC Emissions to Atmosphere 554 25.5 Control of Sulfur Emissions 565 25.6 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen Emissions 569 25.7 Control of Combustion Emissions 573 25.8 Atmospheric Dispersion 574 25.9 Environmental Design for Atmospheric Emissions – Summary 575 25.10 Exercises 576 References 579 Chapter 26 Water System Design 581 26.1 Aqueous Contamination 583 26.2 Primary Treatment Processes 585 26.3 Biological Treatment Processes 588 26.4 Tertiary Treatment Processes 591 26.5 Water Use 593 26.6 Targeting Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants 594 26.7 Design for Maximum Water Reuse for Single Contaminants 596 26.8 Targeting and Design for Maximum Water Reuse Based on Optimization of a Superstructure 604 26.9 Process Changes for Reduced Water Consumption 606 26.10 Targeting Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants 607 26.11 Design for Minimum Wastewater Treatment Flowrate for Single Contaminants 610 26.12 Regeneration of Wastewater 613 26.13 Targeting and Design for Effluent Treatment and Regeneration Based on Optimization of a Superstructure 616 26.14 Data Extraction 617 26.15 Water System Design – Summary 620 26.16 Exercises 620 References 623 Chapter 27 Inherent Safety 625 27.1 Fire 625 27.2 Explosion 626 27.3 Toxic Release 627 27.4 Intensification of Hazardous Materials 628 xii Contents 27.5 Attenuation of Hazardous Materials 630 27.6 Quantitative Measures of Inherent Safety 631 27.7 Inherent Safety – Summary 632 27.8 Exercises 632 References 633 Chapter 28 Clean Process Technology 635 28.1 Sources of Waste from Chemical Production 635 28.2 Clean Process Technology for Chemical Reactors 636 28.3 Clean Process Technology for Separation and Recycle Systems 637 28.4 Clean Process Technology for Process Operations 642 28.5 Clean Process Technology for Utility Systems 643 28.6 Trading off Clean Process Technology Options 644 28.7 Life Cycle Analysis 645 28.8 Clean Process Technology – Summary 646 28.9 Exercises 646 References 647 Chapter 29 Overall Strategy for Chemical Process Design and Integration 649 29.1 Objectives 649 29.2 The Hierarchy 649 29.3 The Final Design 651 Appendix A Annualization of Capital Cost 653 Appendix B Gas Compression 655 B.1 Reciprocating Compressors 655 B.2 Centrifugal Compressors 658 B.3 Staged Compression 659 Appendix C Heat Transfer Coefficients and Pressure Drop in Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers 661 C.1 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for the Tube-Side 661 C.2 Pressure Drop and Heat Transfer Correlations for the Shell-Side 662 References 666 Appendix D The Maximum Thermal Effectiveness for 1–2 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers 667 Appendix E Expression for the Minimum Number of 1–2 Shell-and-tube Heat Exchangers for a Given Unit 669 Appendix F Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Area Target 671 Appendix G Algorithm for the Heat Exchanger Network Number of Shells Target 673 G.1 Minimum Area Target for Networks of 1–2 Shells 674 References 677 Appendix H Algorithm for Heat Exchanger Network Capital Cost Targets 677 Index 679