Cleanroom design: 2nd

Contributors xiii Preface xv 1 An Introduction to the Design of Clean and Containment Areas 1 W. Whyte Introduction 1 The History of Cleanrooms 1 Cleanrooms 6 What is a Cleanroom? 6 Classification of Cleanrooms 7 Class of Rooms Required by Different Industries 8 Types of Clean Areas 9 Containment of Contamination 18 Containment Rooms and Cabinets 18 Supply of Liquid and Gases to Cleanrooms 19 Acknowledgements 20 Bibliography of the History of Cleanrooms 20 2 International Standards for the Design of Cleanrooms 21 A. L. Mdller Introduction 21 The Cleanroom Standards 21 The Naming of Standards, Practices and Technical Orders 21 Who Produces Cleanroom Standards? 22 International Development of Cleanroom Standards 22 Cleanroom Standards-Influencing Standards 24 Contaminants and Other Factors to be Considered 24 Cleanlines-Particulate Contaminants 24 Relationship Between Class and Design Materials 25 Cleanrooms and Classified Rooms 25 Class Conditions to be Considered When Designing to aCertain Class 26 Cleanroom Classes 27 The Present Engineering Classes 27 The New ISO Classification Standard 33 The Biocontamination and Pharmaceutical Classes 36 Production of Sterile Pharmaceuticals 36 Other Biocontamination Class Standards 39 Vi CONTENTS The Containment Classes 40 Other Standards for the Cleanroom 41 Cleanroom Design Standards 41 Isolator and Minienvironment Design 43 Recommended Practices (RPs) of the Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST), USA 44 Standards for Surface Cleanliness 44 Cleanroom Standards for Design Purposes, to Select Technical Concepts and Solutions, Materials, Equipment, etc. 45 Cleanroom Standards 45 Abbreviations/Source Code 47 Acknowledgement 49 3 The Design of Cleanrooms for the Microelectronics industry 51 J. G. King Introduction 51 Manufacturing Semiconductor Circuits 52 Materials 52 Wafer Fabrication 53 Assembly and Test 55 Design Guidelines 56 Design Features 58 Layout 58 Air Flow-Direction 66 Air Flow-Quantity 67 Airborne Molecular Contamination 67 Filter Suspension System 68 Recirculation Air Moving System 68 Fresh Air System 70 Air Return 70 Fire Protection 72 Walls 72 Lighting 73 Electrical System 74 Monitoring Control and Alarm System 74 Remainder of System 76 Concluding Remarks 78 Acknowledgement 78 Reference 78 4 The Design of Cleanrooms for the Pharmaceutical industry 79 G. J. Farquharson and W. Whyte Introduction 79 Types of Pharmaceutical Processes 80 Injectables 80 CONTENTS vii Topicals 81 Oral Products 81 Facility Design 82 Design Objectives 82 Use of Guides and Standards 82 Design Methodology 83 Cleanroom Suite Layouts 83 Environmental Cleanliness 85 Contamination Generation and Release 86 Ingress Through Defective HEPA Filter Systems 86 Contamination Removal in a Room by Displacement or Dilution Ventilation 87 Isolator and Barrier Devices 90 Room Pressurization and Air Movement Control 104 Temperature and Humidity Control 109 Lighting Levels 109 Noise Levels 109 Aesthetic Considerations 110 Construction, Services and Equipment 110 Commissioning and Performance Qualification 111 Commissioning ill Operational Qualification 111 Concluding Remarks 112 Acknowledgements 113 5 The Design of Cleanrooms for the Medical Device Industry 115 H. H. Schicht Introduction 115 The Case for Contamination Control 116 Quality System Philosophy 116 Air Cleanliness Requirements 116 Cleanroom Configurations 118 Injection Cannulae 118 Heart Pacemakers 118 Aortic Bioprostheses 121 Concluding Remarks 121 References 121 6 Contamination Control Facilities for the Biotechnology Industry 123 P. J. Tubito and T. J. Latham Introduction 123 Biotechnology-The Industry 124 Bioprocess Operations 124 Media Preparation 124 Viii CONTENTS Fermentation 125 Recovery and Purification 126 Finishing 128 Utility Services 129 Biocontainment 130 Biocontainment Legislation 130 Primary Containment 132 Secondary Containment 133 Decontamination of Liquid Wastes 135 Biopharmaceutical Manufacturing Facilities 136 Integration of Biocontainment and Product Isolation 137 Fire and Explosion 138 Radioactivity 138 Concluding Remarks 139 7 Cost-Efficiency and Energy-Saving Concepts for Cleanrooms 141 H. H. Schicht Introduction 141 Minimizing the Air Flow Rate for Optimum Cost-Efficiency 141 Cleanroom Systems: Custom-Made Protection Schemes 142 Spot Protection 143 Linear Protection 144 Area Protection in Extensive Cleanrooms 146 Evaluation 148 Optimization of Energy Consumption in Cleanroom Systems 149 Example of a Fully Integrated Energy Concept 150 Some Semi-Quantitative Cost Indications 151 The Cost Impact of Minienvironments and Isolators 153 Concluding Remarks 154 Acknowledgement 154 References 155 8 High Efficiency Air Filtration 157 S. D. Klocke andW. Whyte Introduction 157 The Construction of High Efficiency Filters 158 HEPA Filters 159 ULPA Filters 161 Particle Removal Mechanisms 161 The High Efficiency Filter as Straightener 165 The Testing of High Efficiency Filters 165 United States Military-Standard 282 (Mil-Std 282) 165 Sodium Flame Test (Eurovent 4/4 and British Standard 3928) 167 Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST) Recommended Practice `Testing ULPA Filters' 168 CONTENTS ix European Standard (EN 1822) 169 Probe (Scan) Testing of High Efficiency Filters 170 Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST) Recommended Practice `HEPA and ULPA Filters' 174 Two-Flow Efficiency Testing and Encapsulation 174 Filter Housings for High Efficiency Filters 176 Admissible Air Leakage Seal 177 Fluid Seal 177 In-service Tests for High Efficiency Filters 179 Filter Standards 181 Acknowledgements 182 9 Construction Materials and Surface Finishes for Cleanrooms 183 E. C. Sirch Introduction 183 General Considerations 183 Performance Criteria of Construction Materials and Surfaces 184 Functionality 185 Durability 186 Cleanability 186 Maintainability 186 Considerations for Specific Components 187 Examples of Materials and Features of Construction 187 Cleanroom Components for Good Surface Cleanliness and Low Deterioration 188 Floor Systems 188 Wall Systems 189 Door Systems 196 Ceiling Systems 196 Possible Cleanroom Materials and Constructions 200 Measures to be Taken During the Construction and Assembly of Construction 200 Bibliography 202 10 Purification Techniques for Clean Water 203 T. Hodgkiess Introduction 203 Removal of Dissolved Ions 205 Distillation 206 Reverse Osmosis 209 Ion Exchange 215 Electrodialysis 220 The Basic Process 220 The Electro-deionization or Continuous Deionization Process 222 z CONTENTS Removal of Organics 223 Ion Exchange 223 Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration 224 Activated Carbon Filters 224 Other Methods 224 Removal of Particulate Matter 225 Filtration Using Sand and Other Particulate Media 225 Cartridge and Microfiltration 225 Ultrafiltration 226 Removal of Bacteria 226 Chemical Dosing 227 Ultraviolet (UV) Irradiation 227 Heating 228 Membranes 228 Concluding Remarks 229 11 The Design of an Ultra-Pure Water System for Use in the Manufacture of Integrated Circuits 231 R. Galbraith Introduction 231 Impact of Contaminated Water 231 Ionic 232 Non-Ionic 233 Organic 233 Bacteria 233 Dissolved Gases 234 Plant Design 234 Source Waters 234 Pre-Treatment 235 Multi-Media Filter 235 Activated Carbon Filter 235 Organic Trap 236 Chemical Addition 237 Filtration 237 Reverse Osmosis 238 Deaeration/Degassification 241 Demineralization 241 Mixed BedUnits 244 Polishing Mixed Bed 245 Ultraviolet (UV) Systems 246 Organic Reduction UsingUV Radiation 247 Final Filtration 247 Polishing Loop 248 Instrumentation 250 CONTENTS zi 12 The Production and Transmission of High Purity Gases for the Semiconductor industry 251 R. Galbraith Introduction 251 Use of Bulk Gases 251 Nitrogen 251 Hydrogen 252 Oxygen 252 Argon 252 Impurities in Gases 252 Production and Transport of Nitrogen 253 Quality Requirements 253 Volume 254 Continuity of Supply 254 Nitrogen Generator 254 Nitrogen Purifier 257 Production and Transport of Oxygen 259 Oxygen Purifier 259 Production and Transport of Argon 260 Argon Purifier 260 Production and Transport of Hydrogen 262 Hydrogen Purifier 262 Gas Distribution Systems 264 Stainless Steel 264 Concluding Remarks 267 13 Materials for Services Pipework 269 T Hodgkiess Introduction 269 Metallic Pipeline Materials 269 Carbon Steel 269 Copper and Copper Alloys 270 Stainless Steels 271 Other Metallic Materials 276 Polymeric Pipeline Materials 276 General Comments 276 Some Polymeric Pipe Materials 278 Some Aspects of Pipework Design Using Polymers 283 Thermal Expansion Effects 284 Strength/Stiffness Effects 284 Fibre-Reinforced Polymers 285 Some Other Design Aspects 286 Joining Polymers 286 Costs of Pipe Materials 287 xii CONTENTS Pipework Systems 288 As-Received Water 288 WaterPassing Through the Various Stages of Purification 289 Final Product Water 290 Pharmaceutical Systems 291 Microelectronics Industries 291 Acids 292 Gases 292 Concluding Remarks 292 Index 295