Chemistry 7th ed

Contents To the Professor ix To the Student xv 1 Chemical Foundations 1 1.1 Chemistry: An Overview 2 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Art 4 1.2 The Scientific Method 5 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT A Note-able Achievement 7 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Critical Units! 8 1.3 Units of Measurement 8 1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 10 1.5 Significant Figures and Calculations 13 1.6 Dimensional Analysis 16 1.7 Temperature 19 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Faux Snow 22 1.8 Density 24 1.9 Classification of Matter 25 For Review 29 • Key Terms 29 • Questions and Exercises 30 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 38 2.1 The Early History of Chemistry 39 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT There’s Gold in Them There Plants! 40 2.2 Fundamental Chemical Laws 41 2.3 Dalton’s Atomic Theory 43 2.4 Early Experiments to Characterize the Atom 45 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Berzelius, Selenium, and Silicon 46 2.5 The Modern View of Atomic Structure: An Introduction 49 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Reading the History of Bogs 51 2.6 Molecules and Ions 52 2.7 An Introduction to the Periodic Table 55 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Hassium Fits Right in 57 2.8 Naming Simple Compounds 57 For Review 67 • Key Terms 67 • Question and Exercises 69 3 Stoichiometry 76 3.1 Counting by Weighing 77 3.2 Atomic Masses 78 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Buckyballs Teach Some History 80 iv 5 Gases 178 5.1 Pressure 179 5.2 The Gas Laws of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro 181 5.3 The Ideal Gas Law 186 5.4 Gas Stoichiometry 190 5.5 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 194 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Separating Gases 196 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Air Bags 197 5.6 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 199 5.7 Effusion and Diffusion 206 5.8 Real Gases 208 5.9 Characteristics of Several Real Gases 210 5.10 Chemistry in the Atmosphere 211 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Acid Rain: A Growing Problem 212 For Review 215 • Key Terms 215 • Questions and Exercises 217 6 Thermochemistry 228 6.1 The Nature of Energy 229 6.2 Enthalpy and Calorimetry 235 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Nature Has Hot Plants 238 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Firewalking: Magic or Science? 241 6.3 Hess’s Law 242 6.4 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 246 6.5 Present Sources of Energy 252 6.6 New Energy Sources 256 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Farming the Wind 258 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Veggie Gasoline? 262 For Review 264 • Key Terms 264 • Questions and Exercises 265 7 Atomic Structure and Periodicity 274 7.1 Electromagnetic Radiation 275 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Flies That Dye 277 7.2 The Nature of Matter 277 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Chemistry That Doesn’t Leave You in the Dark 280 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Thin Is In 282 7.3 The Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen 284 7.4 The Bohr Model 285 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Fireworks 288 7.5 The Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 290 7.6 Quantum Numbers 293 7.7 Orbital Shapes and Energies 295 7.8 Electron Spin and the Pauli Principle 296 7.9 Polyelectronic Atoms 298 7.10 The History of the Periodic Table 299 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Growing Periodic Table 302 7.11 The Aufbau Principle and the Periodic Table 302 7.12 Periodic Trends in Atomic Properties 309 7.13 The Properties of a Group: The Alkali Metals 314 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Potassium—Too Much of a Good Thing Can Kill You 317 For Review 318 • Key Terms 318 • Questions and Exercises 320 8 Bonding: General Concepts 328 8.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 330 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT No Lead Pencils 332 8.2 Electronegativity 333 8.3 Bond Polarity and Dipole Moments 335 8.4 Ions: Electron Configurations and Sizes 338 8.5 Energy Effects in Binary Ionic Compounds 342 8.6 Partial Ionic Character of Covalent Bonds 346 8.7 The Covalent Chemical Bond: A Model 347 8.8 Covalent Bond Energies and Chemical Reactions 350 8.9 The Localized Electron Bonding Model 353 8.10 Lewis Structures 354 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Nitrogen Under Pressure 358 8.11 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 358 8.12 Resonance 362 8.13 Molecular Structure: The VSEPR Model 367 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Chemical Structure and Communication: Semiochemicals 378 For Review 380 • Key Terms 380 • Questions and Exercises 382 v 9 Covalent Bonding: Orbitals 390 9.1 Hybridization and the Localized Electron Model 391 9.2 The Molecular Orbital Model 403 9.3 Bonding in Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 406 9.4 Bonding in Heteronuclear Diatomic Molecules 412 9.5 Combining the Localized Electron and Molecular Orbital Models 413 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT What’s Hot? 414 For Review 416 • Key Terms 416 • Questions and Exercises 417 10 Liquids and Solids 424 10.1 Intermolecular Forces 426 10.2 The Liquid State 429 10.3 An Introduction to Structures and Types of Solids 430 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Smart Fluids 434 10.4 Structure and Bonding in Metals 436 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Seething Surfaces 438 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Closest Packing of M & Ms 441 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT What Sank the Titanic? 443 10.5 Carbon and Silicon: Network Atomic Solids 444 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Golfing with Glass 449 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Transistors and Printed Circuits 452 10.6 Molecular Solids 454 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Explosive Sniffer 455 10.7 Ionic Solids 456 10.8 Vapor Pressure and Changes of State 459 10.9 Phase Diagrams 467 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Making Diamonds at Low Pressures: Fooling Mother Nature 470 For Review 472 • Key Terms 472 • Questions and Exercises 474 11 Properties of Solutions 484 11.1 Solution Composition 485 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Electronic Ink 488 11.2 The Energies of Solution Formation 488 11.3 Factors Affecting Solubility 492 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Ionic Liquids? 494 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Lake Nyos Tragedy 497 11.4 The Vapor Pressures of Solutions 497 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Spray Power 500 11.5 Boiling-Point Elevation and Freezing-Point Depression 504 11.6 Osmotic Pressure 508 11.7 Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions 512 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Drink of Champions— Water 514 11.8 Colloids 514 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Organisms and Ice Formation 516 For Review 516 • Key Terms 516 • Questions and Exercises 518 12 Chemical Kinetics 526 12.1 Reaction Rates 527 12.2 Rate Laws: An Introduction 532 12.3 Determining the Form of the Rate Law 534 12.4 The Integrated Rate Law 538 12.5 Rate Laws: A Summary 548 12.6 Reaction Mechanisms 549 12.7 A Model for Chemical Kinetics 552 12.8 Catalysis 557 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Automobiles: Air Purifiers? 560 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Enzymes: Nature’s Catalysts 562 For Review 564 • Key Terms 564 • Questions and Exercises 566 13 Chemical Equilibrium 578 13.1 The Equilibrium Condition 579 13.2 The Equilibrium Constant 582 13.3 Equilibrium Expressions Involving Pressures 586 13.4 Heterogeneous Equilibria 588 13.5 Applications of the Equilibrium Constant 591 vi 13.6 Solving Equilibrium Problems 600 13.7 Le Châtelier’s Principle 604 For Review 610 • Key Terms 610 • Questions and Exercises 613 14 Acids and Bases 622 14.1 The Nature of Acids and Bases 623 14.2 Acid Strength 626 14.3 The pH Scale 631 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Arnold Beckman, Man of Science 632 14.4 Calculating the pH of Strong Acid Solutions 634 14.5 Calculating the pH of Weak Acid Solutions 635 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Household Chemistry 643 14.6 Bases 644 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Amines 648 14.7 Polyprotic Acids 650 14.8 Acid–Base Properties of Salts 655 14.9 The Effect of Structure on Acid–Base Properties 661 14.10 Acid–Base Properties of Oxides 662 14.11 The Lewis Acid–Base Model 663 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Self-Destructing Paper 666 14.12 Strategy for Solving Acid–Base Problems: A Summary 666 For Review 668 • Key Terms 668 • Questions and Exercises 672 15 Applications of Aqueous Equilibria 680 Acid–Base Equilibria 681 15.1 Solutions of Acids or Bases Containing a Common Ion 681 15.2 Buffered Solutions 684 15.3 Buffering Capacity 693 15.4 Titrations and pH Curves 696 15.5 Acid–Base Indicators 711 Solubility Equilibria 717 15.6 Solubility Equilibria and the Solubility Product 771 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Teeth 720 15.7 Precipitation and Qualitative Analysis 724 Complex Ion Equilibria 731 15.8 Equilibria Involving Complex Ions 731 For Review 736 • Key Terms 736 • Questions and Exercises 739 16 Spontaneity, Entropy, and Free Energy 748 16.1 Spontaneous Processes and Entropy 749 16.2 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 755 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Entropy: An Organizing Force? 756 16.3 The Effect of Temperature on Spontaneity 756 16.4 Free Energy 759 16.5 Entropy Changes in Chemical Reactions 762 16.6 Free Energy and Chemical Reactions 766 16.7 The Dependence of Free Energy on Pressure 770 16.8 Free Energy and Equilibrium 774 16.9 Free Energy and Work 778 For Review 780 • Key Terms 780 • Questions and Exercises 782 17 Electrochemistry 790 17.1 Galvanic Cells 791 17.2 Standard Reduction Potentials 794 17.3 Cell Potential, Electrical Work, and Free Energy 800 17.4 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration 803 17.5 Batteries 808 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Printed Batteries 809 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Thermophotovoltaics: Electricity from Heat 810 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Fuel Cells for Cars 812 vii 17.6 Corrosion 813 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Paint that Stops Rust— Completely 814 17.7 Electrolysis 816 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Chemistry of Sunken Treasure 820 17.8 Commercial Electrolytic Processes 821 For Review 826 • Key Terms 826 • Questions and Exercises 829 18 The Nucleus: A Chemist’s View 840 18.1 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decay 841 18.2 The Kinetics of Radioactive Decay 846 18.3 Nuclear Transformations 849 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Stellar Nucleosynthesis 850 18.4 Detection and Uses of Radioactivity 852 18.5 Thermodynamic Stability of the Nucleus 856 18.6 Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion 859 18.7 Effects of Radiation 863 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Nuclear Physics: An Introduction 864 For Review 867 • Key Terms 867 • Questions and Exercises 869 19 The Representative Elements: Groups 1A Through 4A 874 19.1 A Survey of the Representative Elements 875 19.2 The Group 1A Elements 880 19.3 Hydrogen 883 19.4 The Group 2A Elements 885 19.5 The Group 3A Elements 888 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Boost Your Boron 889 19.6 The Group 4A Elements 890 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Concrete Learning 892 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Beethoven: Hair Is the Story 893 For Review 894 • Key Terms 894 • Questions and Exercises 895 20 The Representative Elements: Groups 5A Through 8A 900 20.1 The Group 5A Elements 901 20.2 The Chemistry of Nitrogen 903 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Nitrous Oxide: Laughing Gas That Propels Whipped Cream and Cars 912 20.3 The Chemistry of Phosphorus 913 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Phosphorus: An Illuminating Element 914 20.4 The Group 6A Elements 918 20.5 The Chemistry of Oxygen 919 20.6 The Chemistry of Sulfur 920 20.7 The Group 7A Elements 924 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Photography 926 20.8 The Group 8A Elements 931 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Automatic Sunglasses 931 For Review 933 • Key Terms 933 • Questions and Exercises 936 21 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry 942 21.1 The Transition Metals: A Survey 943 21.2 The First-Row Transition Metals 949 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Titanium Dioxide—Miracle Coating 951 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Titanium Makes Great Bicycles 952 21.3 Coordination Compounds 955 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Alfred Werner: Coordination Chemist 960 21.4 Isomerism 960 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT The Importance of Being cis 963 viii 22.5 Polymers 1016 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Heal Thyself 1018 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Wallace Hume Carothers 1022 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Plastic That Talks and Listens 1024 22.6 Natural Polymers 1025 ■ CHEMICAL IMPACT Tanning in the Shade 1032 For Review 1040 • Key Terms 1040 • Questions and Exercises 1044 Appendix 1 Mathematical Procedures A1 A1.1 Exponential Notation A1 A1.2 Logarithms A4 A1.3 Graphing Functions A6 A1.4 Solving Quadratic Equations A7 A1.5 Uncertainties in Measurements A10 Appendix 2 The Quantitative Kinetic Molecular Model A13 Appendix 3 Spectral Analysis A16 Appendix 4 Selected Thermodynamic Data A19 Appendix 5 Equilibrium Constants and Reduction Potentials A22 A5.1 Values of Ka for Some Common Monoprotic Acids A22 A5.2 Stepwise Dissociation Constants for Several Common Polyprotic Acids A23 A5.3 Values of Kb for Some Common Weak Bases A23 A5.4 Ksp Values at 25
C for Common Ionic Solids A24 A5.5 Standard Reduction Potentials at 25
C (298K) for Many Common Half-Reactions A25 Appendix 6 SI Units and Conversion Factors A26 Glossary A27 Photo Credits A39 Answers to Selected Exercises A41 Index A70