Safety at work 6th ed

Contents Foreword xvii Preface to sixth edition xix Preface to first edition xxiii List of contributors xxv Part 1 Law 1 1.1 Explaining the law Brenda Watts 3 1.1.1 Introduction 3 1.1.2 The incident 3 1.1.3 Some possible actions arising from the incident 3 1.1.4 Legal issues of the incident 4 1.1.5 Criminal and civil law 4 1.1.6 Branches of law 5 1.1.7 Law and fact 7 1.1.8 The courts 7 1.1.9 Judicial precedent 17 1.1.10 Court procedure 18 1.1.11 Identity of court personnel 24 1.1.12 Employment Tribunals 26 1.1.13 European Community Courts (ECJ) 27 1.1.14 Human Rights Courts 29 1.1.15 Sources of English law 29 1.1.16 Legislation 30 1.1.17 Safety legislation before the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 37 1.1.18 Safety legislation today 38 1.1.19 Principles developed by the courts 41 vi Contents 1.2 Principal health and safety Acts S. Simpson 49 1.2.1 The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 49 1.2.2 The Factories Act 1961 59 1.2.3 The Fire Precautions Act 1971 59 1.2.4 The Mines and Quarries Acts 1954–71 61 1.2.5 The Environmental Protection Act 1990 61 1.2.6 The Road Traffic Acts 1972–91 62 1.2.7 The Public Health Act 1936 62 1.2.8 Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928 63 1.2.9 Activity Centres (Young Persons Safety) Act 1995 63 1.2.10 Crown premises 63 1.2.11 Subordinate legislation 64 1.3 Influences on health and safety J. R. Ridley 67 1.3.1 Introduction 67 1.3.2 The Robens Report 67 1.3.3 Delegation of law-making powers 68 1.3.4 Legislative framework for health and safety 69 1.3.5 Self-regulation 70 1.3.6 Goal-setting legislation 71 1.3.7 European Union 72 1.3.8 European standards 75 1.3.9 Our social partners 77 1.3.10 Social expectations 77 1.3.11 Public expectations 78 1.3.12 Political influences 78 1.3.13 Roles in health and safety 79 1.3.14 Safety culture 80 1.3.15 Quality culture 80 1.3.16 No fault liability 81 1.3.17 Risk assessments 81 1.3.18 Conclusion 82 1.4 Law of contract R. W. Hodgin 84 1.4.1 Contracts 84 1.4.2 Contracts of employment 87 1.4.3 Employment legislation 88 1.4.4 Law of sale 90 1.4.5 Specialised legislation affecting occupational safety advisers 92 1.5 Employment law R. D. Miskin updated by Amanda Jones 96 1.5.1 Introduction 96 1.5.2 Employment law 96 1.5.3 Discrimination 98 1.5.4 Disciplinary procedures 105 1.5.5 Dismissal 107 1.5.6 Summary 117 Contents vii 1.6 Consumer protection R. G. Lawson 119 1.6.1 Fair conditions of contract 119 1.6.2 A fair quality of goods and services 127 1.6.3 Product safety 127 1.6.4 Product liability 132 1.6.5 Misleading advertising 134 1.6.6 Exclusion clauses 135 1.6.7 Distance selling 138 1.6.8 Stop now orders 138 1.6.9 Consumer redress 139 1.7 Insurance cover and compensation A. West 141 1.7.1 Workmen’s compensation and the State insurance scheme 141 1.7.2 Employer’s liability insurance 144 1.7.3 Public Liability insurance 150 1.7.4 Investigation, negotiation and the quantum of damage 151 1.7.5 General 155 1.8 Civil liability E. J. Skellett 156 1.8.1 The common law and its development 156 1.8.2 The law of tort 157 1.8.3 Occupier’s Liability Acts 1957 and 1984 160 1.8.4 Supply of goods 161 1.8.5 Employer’s liability 162 1.8.6 Employer’s Liability (Defective Equipment) Act 1969 165 1.8.7 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 165 1.8.8 Defences to a civil liability claim 166 1.8.9 Volenti non fit injuria 167 1.8.10 Limitation 168 1.8.11 Assessment of damages 168 1.8.12 Fatal accidents 170 1.8.13 ’No fault’ liability system 170 Part 2 The management of risk 173 2.1 An introduction to risk management J. E. Channing 175 2.1.1 Introduction 175 2.1.2 The components of risk 177 2.1.3 Strategies to control risk 180 2.1.4 Risk management in the 21st century 184 2.2 Principles of the management of risk L. Bamber 187 2.2.1 Principles of action necessary to prevent accidents 187 2.2.2 Definitions of hazard, risk and danger 188 2.2.3 Risk management 190 2.2.4 Loss control 193 2.2.5 Degrees of hazard 197 2.2.6 Accident causation models 198 2.2.7 Accident prevention: legal, humanitarian and economic reasons for action 201 viii Contents 2.3 Risk management: organisation and administration for safety J. E. Channing 205 2.3.1 Introduction 205 2.3.2 Organisation structure models 206 2.3.3 Roles and responsibilities 210 2.3.4 Work groups 212 2.3.5 Organisational theory 214 2.3.6 Organisational techniques 217 2.3.7 Culture 220 2.3.8 Potential problems 221 2.3.9 The role of specialists in the organisation 224 2.3.10 Conclusion 225 2.4 Risk management: techniques and practices L. Bamber 227 2.4.1 Risk identification, assessment and control 227 2.4.2 Job safety analysis 233 2.4.3 System safety 238 2.4.4 Systems theory and design 240 2.4.5 System safety engineering 243 2.4.6 Fault tree analysis 243 2.4.7 Probabalistic risk assessments 244 2.4.8 Health and safety in design and planning 246 2.4.9 Quality, Environment, Safety and Health Management Systems (QUENSH) 248 2.4.10 Use of data on accidents 250 2.4.11 Maintenance systems and planned maintenance 251 2.4.12 Damage control 252 2.4.13 Cost-effectiveness of risk management 253 2.4.14 Performance evaluation and appraisal 257 2.4.15 Loss control profiling 259 2.5 The collection and use of accident and incident data Dr A. J. Boyle 263 2.5.1 Introduction 263 2.5.2 Types of accident and incident data 263 2.5.3 Collection of accident and incident data 267 2.5.4 Legal requirements to notify accidents and incidents 271 2.5.5 The use of accident and incident data 271 2.5.6 Epidemiological analysis 279 2.5.7 Accident investigation 281 2.5.8 Accident and incident data and risk assessment data 292 2.5.9 The use of computers 294 Appendix. UK requirements for reporting accidents and incidents 299 2.6 Practical safety management: systems and techniques J. E. Channing 304 2.6.1 Introduction 304 2.6.2 Legal obligations 305 2.6.3 Generic safety management 306 Contents ix 2.6.4 Implementing a regulation within a safety management system 310 2.6.5 Safety management and housekeeping 315 2.6.6 Assessment techniques 319 2.6.7 Proprietary audit systems 322 2.6.8 Safety systems and incidents 324 2.6.9 Learning organisations 325 2.6.10 Safety management systems in small organisations 327 2.6.11 Conclusion 328 2.7 The individual and safety Andrew Hale 330 2.7.1 Introduction: What does this chapter try to do? 330 2.7.2 Individuals as controllers of danger 332 2.7.3 Behavioural science and the human information processor 335 2.7.4 Individual behaviour in the face of danger 351 2.7.5 Change 373 2.7.6 Conclusion 385 2.8 Risk management and behaviour modification J. E. Channing 389 2.8.1 Introduction 389 2.8.2 Behaviour modification for employees 391 2.8.3 Behaviour modification for managers and supervisors 402 2.8.4 Applying behaviour concepts to incident investigation 408 2.8.5 Behaviour concepts and the safety management system 410 2.8.6 Risk, behaviour, leadership and commitment 410 2.8.7 Behaviour modification processes: the hazards 412 2.8.8 Behaviour and safety culture 413 2.8.9 Conclusion 415 Part 3 Occupational health and hygiene 419 3.1 The structure and functions of the human body Dr T. Coates 421 3.1.1 Introduction 421 3.1.2 History 421 3.1.3 The functions of an occupational health department 424 3.1.4 Overseas developments 424 3.1.5 Risks to health at work 425 3.1.6 Occupational hygiene 426 3.1.7 First aid at work 427 3.1.8 Basic human anatomy and physiology 428 3.1.9 Cancer and other problems of cell growth 443 3.1.10 The body’s defence mechanisms 444 3.1.11 Factors determining the effect of substances in the body 445 3.1.12 The assessment of risk to health 446 x Contents 3.2 Occupational diseases Dr A. R. L. Clark 447 3.2.1 Introduction 447 3.2.2 Toxicology 447 3.2.3 Diseases of the skin 451 3.2.4 Diseases of the respiratory system 454 3.2.5 Diseases from metals 460 3.2.6 Pesticides 464 3.2.7 Solvents 465 3.2.8 Gassing 469 3.2.9 Oxygen deficiency 471 3.2.10 Occupational cancer 473 3.2.11 Physical agents 475 3.2.12 Ionising radiations 476 3.2.13 Noise-induced hearing loss 479 3.2.14 Working in heat 482 3.2.15 Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULD) 482 3.2.16 Diseases due to micro-organisms 483 3.2.17 Psycho-social disorders 487 3.2.18 Target organs 488 3.3 Occupational hygiene Dr C. Hartley 492 3.3.1 Recognition 492 3.3.2 Evaluation 493 3.3.3 Control measures 512 3.3.4 Summary 522 3.4 Radiation Dr A. D. Wrixon and updated by Peter Shaw and Dr M. Maslanyj 524 3.4.1 Introduction 524 3.4.2 Structure of matter 524 3.4.3 Radioactivity 525 3.4.4 Ionising radiation 525 3.4.5 Biological effects of ionising radiation 526 3.4.6 Quantities and units 527 3.4.7 Basic principles of radiological protection 528 3.4.8 Legal requirements 533 3.4.9 National Radiological Protection Board 536 3.4.10 Incidents and emergencies 537 3.4.11 Non-ionising radiation 537 3.5 Noise and vibration R. W. Smith 543 3.5.1 What is sound? 543 3.5.2 Other terms commonly found in acoustics 546 3.5.3 Transmission of sound 550 3.5.4 The sound level meter 550 3.5.5 The ear 552 3.5.6 The equivalent noise level 553 3.5.7 Community noise levels 554 3.5.8 Work area noise levels 555 Contents xi 3.5.9 Noise control techniques 556 3.5.10 Vibration 564 3.5.11 Summary 566 3.6 Workplace pollution, heat and ventilation F. S. Gill 568 3.6.1 Methods of assessment of workplace air pollution 569 3.6.2 Measurement of the thermal environment 572 3.6.3 Standards for workplace environments 573 3.6.4 Ventilation control of a workplace environment 575 3.6.5 Assessment of performance of ventilation systems 577 3.7 Lighting E. G. Hooper and updated by Jonathan David 581 3.7.1 Introduction 581 3.7.2 The eye 581 3.7.3 Eye conditions 582 3.7.4 Definitions 583 3.7.5 Types of lighting 585 3.7.6 Illuminances 586 3.7.7 Factors affecting the quality of lighting 588 3.7.8 Use of light measuring instruments 591 3.8 Managing ergonomics Nick Cook 594 3.8.1 Introduction 594 3.8.2 Ergonomics defined 595 3.8.3 Ancient Egyptians and all that – a brief history of ergonomics 596 3.8.4 Ergonomics – has designs on you 598 3.8.5 Ergonomic concepts 598 3.8.6 Managing ergonomic issues in the workplace 605 3.8.7 Work-related upper limb disorders (WRULD) 606 3.8.8 Back issues 609 3.8.9 Managing the ergonomics of disability 610 3.8.10 Legal requirements 611 3.8.11 Conclusion 614 3.9 Applied ergonomics J. R. Ridley 617 3.9.1 Introduction 617 3.9.2 Physiology 618 3.9.3 Working environment 631 3.9.4 Manual handling 638 3.9.5 Repetitive actions 639 3.9.6 Plant design 640 3.9.7 Controls and indicators 640 3.9.8 Noise and vibrations 642 3.9.9 Stress 643 3.9.10 Display screen equipment (DSE) 644 3.9.11 Signs and signals 645 3.9.12 Coda 646 xii Contents Part 4 Workplace safety 649 4.1 Science in engineering safety J. R. Ridley 651 4.1.1 Introduction 651 4.1.2 Structure of matter 651 4.1.3 Properties of chemicals 653 4.1.4 Physical properties 657 4.1.5 Energy and work 663 4.1.6 Mechanics 664 4.1.7 Strength of materials 665 4.1.8 Modes of failure 667 4.1.9 Testing 668 4.1.10 Hydraulics 668 4.1.11 Summary 669 4.2 Fire precautions Ray Chalklen 671 4.2.1 Introduction 671 4.2.2 Basic fire technology 671 4.2.3 Fire hazards and their control 674 4.2.4 Fire alarms and detectors 678 4.2.5 Classification of fires 685 4.2.6 Portable fire-fighting equipment 688 4.2.7 Fixed fire-fighting equipment 695 4.2.8 Fire safety signs 702 4.2.9 Means of escape in case of fire 703 4.2.10 Fire engineering 706 4.2.11 Fire protection measures 708 4.2.12 Legal requirements 711 4.2.13 Fire risk assessment 716 4.2.14 Access and facilities for the fire brigade 719 4.2.15 Fire terminology 720 4.3 Safe use of machinery J. R. Ridley 727 4.3.1 Introduction 727 4.3.2 Strategy for selecting safeguards 734 4.3.3 Safeguarding techniques 737 4.3.4 Powered trucks 749 4.3.5 Lifting equipment 754 4.3.6 Pressure systems 760 4.3.7 Coda 766 4.4 Electricity E. G. Hooper and revised by Chris Buck 769 4.4.1 Alternating and direct currents 769 4.4.2 Electricity supply 770 4.4.3 Statutory requirements 772 4.4.4 Voltage levels 773 4.4.5 Electrical accidents 773 4.4.6 The basic electrical circuit 774 4.4.7 Dangers from electricity 775 4.4.8 Protective means 778 4.4.9 Competence 781 Contents xiii 4.4.10 Permits-to-work 782 4.4.11 Static electricity 782 4.4.12 Use of electricity in adverse or hazardous environments 785 4.4.13 Electrical equipment in flammable atmospheres 786 4.4.14 Portable tools 789 4.4.15 Residual current devices 789 4.4.16 Maintenance 790 4.4.17 Conclusion 790 4.5 Statutory examination of plant and equipment J. McMullen and updated by J. E. Caddick 793 4.5.1 Introduction 793 4.5.2 Legislation 794 4.5.3 Pressure systems 794 4.5.4 Lifting equipment 800 4.5.5 Power presses and press brakes 806 4.5.6 Local exhaust ventilation 808 4.5.7 Electrical equipment and installations 810 4.5.8 Other considerations 811 4.5.9 Conclusion 814 4.6 Safety on construction sites R. Hudson 819 4.6.1 Construction accidents 819 4.6.2 Safe working in the industry 820 4.6.3 Site hazards 829 4.6.4 Access 834 4.6.5 The Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998 836 4.6.6 Welfare facilities 841 4.6.7 Other relevant legislation 842 4.7 Managing chemicals safely John Adamson 850 4.7.1 Introduction 850 4.7.2 Chemical data 850 4.7.3 Source of information 851 4.7.4 Risk assessments 852 4.7.5 Minimising the risk 856 4.7.6 Legislative requirements 860 4.7.7 Storage of substances 867 4.7.8 Transport 871 4.7.9 Plant and process design 872 4.7.10 Further safety studies 881 4.7.11 Plant modifications 882 4.7.12 Safe systems of work 882 4.7.13 Laboratories 884 4.7.14 Emergency procedures 887 4.7.15 Conclusions 888 xiv Contents Part 5 The environment 891 5.1 The environment: issues, concepts and strategies J. E. Channing 893 5.1.1 Introduction 893 5.1.2 Environmental predictions 894 5.1.3 Sustainable development 895 5.1.4 Environmental hazards 898 5.1.5 Evaluating environmental risks 900 5.1.6 Environmental control strategies 904 5.1.7 Conclusion 906 5.2 Environmental management systems J. E. Channing 908 5.2.1 Introduction 908 5.2.2 Establishing an environmental management system 909 5.2.3 Additional EMAS requirements 919 5.2.4 Conclusions 919 5.3 Waste management Samantha Moss 921 5.3.1 Introduction 921 5.3.2 Waste authorities 922 5.3.3 National waste strategies 923 5.3.4 Defining waste 924 5.3.5 The waste hierarchy 926 5.3.6 Waste management in practice 927 5.3.7 Waste minimisation 942 5.3.8 The cost of failure to manage waste effectively 952 5.3.9 Conclusion 953 5.4 Chemicals and the environment J. L. Adamson 956 5.4.1 Introduction 956 5.4.2 Chemical data 956 5.4.3 Risk reduction 957 5.4.4 The Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA) 957 5.4.5 Minimising environmental harm 962 5.4.6 Air pollution: control measures and abatement techniques 965 5.4.7 Monitoring atmospheric pollution 967 5.4.8 Control of water pollution 970 5.4.9 Groundwater pollution 972 5.4.10 Waste disposal and duty of care 973 5.4.11 Reuse or recycling of industrial waste 982 5.4.12 Environmental management systems 982 5.4.13 Conclusion 984 5.5 The environment at large G. N. Batts 986 5.5.1 Introduction 986 5.5.2 Environmental issues 987 5.5.3 The environment and the media 993 5.5.4 The global impact of environmental issues 994 5.5.5 Ethical investing and green procurement 995 Contents xv 5.5.6 Increasing environmental legislation, controls and public reporting 996 5.5.7 End-of-pipe control 997 5.5.8 Polluter pays 998 5.5.9 Producer or shared responsibility 999 5.5.10 Environmental management system (EMS) and sustainable development 1000 5.5.11 Corporate social responsibility 1001 Appendix 1 The Institution of Occupational Safety and Health 1007 Appendix 2 Reading for Part I of the NEBOSH Diploma examination 1008 Appendix 3 List of abbreviations 1009 Appendix 4 Organisations providing safety information 1015 Appendix 5 List of Statutes, Regulations and Orders 1017 Appendix 6 List of Cases 1025 Index 1031