Lee's loss prevention in the process industries

1 Introduction 1/1 1.1 Management Leadership 1/1 1.2 Industrial Safety and Loss Trends 1/1 1.3 Safety and Environment Concerns 1/1 1.4 Loss Prevention-1 1/4 1.5 Large Single-stream Plants 1/5 1.6 Loss Prevention-2 1/8 1.7 Total Loss Control 1/10 1.8 QualityAssurance 1/11 1.9 Total Quality Management 1/11 1.10 Risk Management 1/12 1.11 Safety-critical Systems 1/13 1.12 Environment 1/13 1.13 Professional Institutions and Bodies 1/13 1.14 Responsible Care 1/13 1.15 Academic and Research Activities 1/13 1.16 Overview 1/13 2 Hazard, Incident and Loss 2/1 2.1 The Incident Process 2/2 2.2 Standard Industrial Classification 2/4 2.3 Injury Statistics 2/5 2.4 Major Disasters 2/11 2.5 Major Process Hazards 2/12 2.6 Fire Loss Statistics 2/15 2.7 Fire and Explosion 2/16 2.8 Causes of Loss 2/20 2.9 Down-time Losses 2/20 2.10 Trend of Injuries 2/22 2.11 Trend of Losses 2/22 2.12 Case Histories 2/27 3 Legislation and Law 3/1 3.1 US Legislation 3/2 3.2 US RegulatoryAgencies 3/3 3.3 Codes and Standards 3/3 3.4 Occupational Safety and Health Act 1970 3/4 3.5 US Environmental Legislation 3/4 3.6 US Toxic Substances Legislation 3/4 3.7 USAccidental Chemical Release Legislation 3/5 3.8 US Transport Legislation 3/5 3.9 Regulatory Support 3/5 4 Major Hazard Control 4/1 4.1 Superstar Technologies 4/2 4.2 Hazard Monitoring 4/4 4.3 Risk Issues 4/4 4.4 Risk Perception 4/4 4.5 Risk Management 4/9 4.6 Hazard Control Policy 4/13 4.7 Nuclear Hazard Control 4/13 4.8 Process Hazard Control: Background 4/14 4.9 Process Hazard Control: Advisory Committee on Major Hazards 4/15 4.10 Process Hazard Control: Major Hazards Arrangements 4/17 4.11 Process Hazard Control: Planning 4/21 4.12 Process Hazard Control: European Community 4/30 4.13 Process Hazard Control: USA 4/31 5 Economics and Insurance 5/1 5.1 Economics of Loss Prevention 5/2 5.2 Cost of Losses 5/2 5.3 Cost of Prevention 5/4 5.4 Level of Loss Prevention Expenditure 5/5 5.5 Insurance of Process Plant 5/7 5.6 Property Insurance 5/11 5.7 Business Interruption Insurance 5/16 5.8 Other Insurance Aspects 5/17 5.9 Notation 5/19 6 Management and Management Systems 6/1 6.1 Management Attitude 6/2 6.2 Management Commitment and Leadership 6/4 6.3 Management Organization 6/4 6.4 Competent People 6/5 6.5 Systems and Procedures 6/5 6.6 Project Safety Reviews 6/5 6.7 Management of Change 6/5 6.8 Standards and Codes of Practice 6/6 6.9 Pressure Systems 6/6 6.10 Documentation 6/6 6.11 Audit System 6/6 6.12 Independent Checks 6/6 6.13 Major Hazards 6/9 6.14 Quality Management 6/9 6.15 Safety Management 6/9 6.16 Policy 6/9 6.17 Organization 6/10 6.18 Planning 6/12 6.19 Measurement 6/12 6.20 Control 6/13 6.21 Audit 6/13 6.22 Process Knowledge 6/13 6.23 Safety Strategies 6/14 6.24 Human Factors 6/14 6.25 Contractors 6/15 6.26 Safety Management Systems 6/15 6.27 Process Safety Management 6/15 6.28 CCPS Management Guidelines 6/166.29 Regulatory Control 6/19 6.30 STATAS 6/20 7 Reliability Engineering 7/1 7.1 Development of Reliability Engineering 7/5 7.2 Reliability Engineering in the Process Industries 7/6 7.3 Definition of Reliability 7/6 7.4 Meanings of Probability 7/7 7.5 Some Probability Relationships 7/7 7.6 Some Reliability Relationships 7/10 7.7 Failure Distributions 7/12 7.8 Reliability of Some Standard Systems 7/19 7.9 Reliability of Complex Systems 7/21 7.10 Markov Models 7/24 7.11 Joint Density Functions 7/29 7.12 Monte Carlo Simulation 7/29 7.13 Availability 7/32 7.14 Bayes’ Theorem 7/38 7.15 Renewal Theory 7/39 7.16 Replacement Models 7/41 7.17 Models of Failure: Strength-load Interaction 7/41 7.18 Models of Failure: Some Other Models 7/44 7.19 Failure Behaviour and Regimes 7/45 7.20 Failure Data Analysis 7/47 7.21 Reliability in Design 7/59 7.22 Reliability Prediction 7/60 7.23 Reliability Growth,Testing and Demonstration 7/61 7.24 Maintainability 7/62 7.25 Maintenance Activities and Policies 7/63 7.26 Reliability-centred Maintenance 7/66 7.27 Life Cycle Costing 7/67 7.28 Notation 7/69 8 Hazard Identification 8/1 8.1 SafetyAudits 8/2 8.2 Management System Audits 8/5 8.3 Checklists 8/11 8.4 Materials Properties 8/11 8.5 Pilot Plants 8/13 8.6 Hazard Indices 8/13 8.7 Hazard Studies 8/26 8.8 What If ? Analysis 8/29 8.9 Event Tree and Fault Tree Analysis 8/29 8.10 Preliminary Hazard Analysis 8/29 8.11 Screening Analysis Techniques 8/30 8.12 Hazard and Operability Studies 8/31 8.13 Failure Modes, Effects and Criticality Analysis 8/51 8.14 Sneak Analysis 8/53 8.15 Computer HAZOP 8/54 8.16 Human Error Analysis 8/55 8.17 Scenario Development 8/55 8.18 Consequence Modelling 8/57 8.19 Process Safety Review System 8/57 8.20 Choice of Method 8/62 8.21 Filtering and Follow-up 8/62 8.22 Safety Review Systems 8/62 8.23 Hazard Ranking Methods 8/69 8.24 HazardWarning Analysis 8/70 8.25 Plant SafetyAudits 8/70 8.26 Other Methods 8/70 8.27 QualityAssurance 8/74 8.28 QualityAssurance: Completeness 8/74 8.29 QualityAssurance: QUASA 8/75 8.30 Notation 8/79 9 Hazard Assessment 9/1 9.1 Background 9/05 9.2 Hazard Analysis 9/06 9.3 Risk Assessment 9/07 9.4 Event Data 9/11 9.5 Fault Trees 9/12 9.6 Event Trees 9/30 9.7 Cause
Consequence Diagrams 9/31 9.8 Dependent Failures 9/32 9.9 Expert Judgement 9/41 9.10 Rare Events and External Threats 9/47 9.11 Human Factors and Human Error 9/49 9.12 Management Aspects 9/51 9.13 Hazard Models 9/52 9.14 Domino Effects 9/53 9.15 Hazard Model Systems 9/54 9.16 Population Characteristics 9/56 9.17 Modification of Exposure 9/64 9.18 Injury Relations 9/67 9.19 Presentation of Results 9/71 9.20 Confidence in Results 9/77 9.21 Risk Criteria 9/82 9.22 Guide Assessments 9/92 9.23 Hazard Impact Model 9/98 9.24 Simplified Assessment Methods 9/104 9.25 Decay Relations 9/105 9.26 Hazard Warning 9/108 9.27 Computer Aids 9/119 9.28 Risk Assessment Debate 9/120 9.29 Overview 9/122 10 Plant Siting and Layout 10/1 10.1 Plant Siting 10/2 10.2 Plant Layout 10/2 10.3 Layout Generation 10/3 10.4 Layout Techniques and Aids 10/5 10.5 Layout Planning and Development 10/6 10.6 Site Layout Features 10/7 10.7 Plot Layout Considerations 10/10 10.8 Equipment Layout 10/12 10.9 Pipework Layout 10/13 10.10 Storage Layout 10/14 10.11 Separation Distances 10/1510.12 Hazardous Area Classification 10/20 10.13 Hazard Assessment 10/22 10.14 Hazard Models 10/22 10.15 Fire Protection 10/25 10.16 Effluents 10/27 10.17 Drain Systems 10/28 10.18 Blast-Resistant Structures 10/29 10.19 Control Buildings 10/29 10.20 Toxics Protection 10/30 10.21 Modular Plants 10/31 10.22 Notation 10/33 11 Process Design 11/1 11.1 The Design Process 11/2 11.2 Conceptual
Front End Design 11/8 11.3 Detailed Engineering 11/10 11.4 Design Assessments 11/11 11.5 Licensors,Vendors and Contractors 11/13 11.6 Inherently Safer Design 11/13 11.7 Unit Processes 11/24 11.8 Unit Operations and Equipments 11/28 11.9 Operating Conditions 11/32 11.10 Utilities 11/34 11.11 Particular Chemicals 11/41 11.12 Particular Processes and Plants 11/53 11.13 Operational Deviations 11/60 11.14 Impurities 11/64 11.15 CCPS Engineering Design Guidelines 11/64 12 Pressure System Design 12/1 12.1 Pressure Systems 12/5 12.2 Pressure System Components 12/8 12.3 Steels and Their Properties 12/8 12.4 Pressure Vessel Design 12/15 12.5 Joining, Fastening and Welding 12/17 12.6 Pressure Vessel Standards and Codes 12/18 12.7 Pipework and Valves 12/22 12.8 Heat Exchangers 12/32 12.9 Fired Heaters and Furnaces 12/34 12.10 Process Machinery 12/36 12.11 Insulation 12/41 12.12 Overpressure Protection 12/43 12.13 Overpressure Protection: Pressure Relief Devices 12/47 12.14 Overpressure Protection: Relief System Design 12/50 12.15 Overpressure Protection: Fire Relief 12/51 12.16 Overpressure Protection: Vacuum and Thermal Relief 12/53 12.17 Overpressure Protection: Special Situations 12/56 12.18 Overpressure Protection: Disposal 12/57 12.19 Overpressure Protection:Pressure Relief Valves 12/60 12.20 Overpressure Protection: Bursting Discs 12/64 12.21 Overpressure Protection: Installation of Relief Devices 12/65 12.22 Flare and Vent Systems 12/67 12.23 Blowdown and Depressuring Systems 12/72 12.24 Pressure Containment 12/72 12.25 Containment of Toxic Materials 12/73 12.26 Pressure Systems for Chlorine 12/75 12.27 Failure in Pressure Systems 12/79 12.28 Fracture Mechanics 12/87 12.29 Probabilistic Fracture Mechanics 12/92 12.30 Failure of Vessels, Equipment and Machinery 12/92 13 Control System Design 13/1 13.1 Process Characteristics 13/2 13.2 Control System Characteristics 13/4 13.3 Instrument System Design 13/4 13.4 Process Computer Control 13/8 13.5 Control of Batch Processes 13/12 13.6 Control of Particular Units 13/14 13.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing 13/17 13.8 Instrument Failure 13/17 13.9 Trip Systems 13/25 13.10 Interlock Systems 13/43 13.11 Programmable Logic Systems 13/47 13.12 Programmable Electronic Systems 13/48 13.13 Software Engineering 13/54 13.14 Safety-related Instrument Systems 13/60 13.15 CCPS Safe Automation Guidelines 13/62 13.16 Emergency Shut-down Systems 13/65 13.17 Level of Automation 13/67 13.18 Toxic Storage Instrumentation 13/68 13.19 Notation 13/69 14 Human Factors and Human Error 14/1 14.1 Human Factors in Process Control 14/4 14.2 Human Factors in System Design 14/4 14.3 Themes in Human Factors 14/5 14.4 Process Operator Functions 14/7 14.5 Process Operator Studies 14/7 14.6 Allocation of Function 14/10 14.7 Information Display 14/11 14.8 Alarm Systems 14/13 14.9 Fault Administration 14/16 14.10 Malfunction Detection 14/18 14.11 Computer-based Aids 14/19 14.12 Human Information Processing 14/21 14.13 Task Analysis 14/27 14.14 Job Design 14/35 14.15 Personnel Selection 14/35 14.16 Training 14/36 14.17 Training: ACSNI Study Group Report 14/38 14.18 Human Factors and Industrial Safety 14/44 14.19 Human Error 14/4414.20 Models and Classifications of Human Error 14/46 14.21 Human Error in Process Plants 14/48 14.22 Prevention and Mitigation of Human Error 14/51 14.23 Assessment of Human Error 14/53 14.24 Assessment of Human Error: Task Analytic Approach 14/53 14.25 Assessment of Human Error: Process Operation 14/54 14.26 Assessment of Human Error: Qualitative Methods 14/57 14.27 Assessment of Human Error: Human Reliability Analysis Handbook 14/59 14.28 Assessment of Human Error: Success Likelihood Index Method (SLIM) 14/73 14.29 Assessment of Human Error: Human Error Assessment and Reduction Technique (HEART) 14/74 14.30 Assessment of Human Error: Method of Dougherty and Fragola 14/74 14.31 Assessment of Human Error: CCPSMethod 14/80 14.32 Assessment of Human Error: Other Methods 14/80 14.33 Assessment of Human Error: Performance Shaping Factors 14/82 14.34 Assessment of Human Error: Human Error Data 14/84 14.35 Assessment of Human Error: SRD Human Error Guides 14/87 14.36 Assessment of Human Error: Benchmark Exercise 14/87 14.37 Assessment of Human Error: ACSNI Study Group Report 14/88 14.38 CCPS Human Error Prevention Guidelines 14/90 14.39 Human Factors at Sizewell B 14/91 14.40 Notation 14/92 15 Emission and Dispersion 15/1 15.1 Emission 15/02 15.2 Two-phase Flow 15/14 15.3 Two-phase Flow: Fauske Models 15/26 15.4 Two-phase Flow: Leung Models 15/30 15.5 Vessel Depressurization 15/33 15.6 Pressure Relief Valves 15/39 15.7 Vessel Blowdown 15/42 15.8 Vessel Rupture 15/45 15.9 Pipeline Rupture 15/54 15.10 Vaporization 15/56 15.11 Dispersion 15/69 15.12 Meteorology 15/74 15.13 Topography 15/98 15.14 Dispersion Modelling 15/100 15.15 Passive Dispersion 15/102 15.16 Passive Dispersion: Models 15/103 15.17 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion over Particular Surfaces 15/116 15.18 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion in Particular Conditions 15/121 15.19 Passive Dispersion: Dispersion Parameters 15/121 15.20 Dispersion of Jets and Plumes 15/134 15.21 Dispersion of Two-phase Flashing Jets 15/152 15.22 Dense Gas Dispersion 15/155 15.23 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Source Terms 15/160 15.24 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Models and Modelling 15/164 15.25 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Modified Conventional Models 15/167 15.26 Dispersion of Dense Gas:Van Ulden Model 15/168 15.27 Dispersion of Dense Gas: British Gas/Cremer and Warner Model 15/172 15.28 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DENZ and CRUNCH 15/175 15.29 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SIGMET 15/179 15.30 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLAB and FEM3 15/181 15.31 Dispersion of Dense Gas: HEGADAS and Related Models 15/182 15.32 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DEGADIS 15/189 15.33 Dispersion of Dense Gas: SLUMP and HEAVYGAS 15/191 15.34 Dispersion of Dense Gas Dispersion:Workbook Model 15/191 15.35 Dispersion of Dense Gas: DRIFTand Related Models 15/200 15.36 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Some Other Models and Reviews 15/202 15.37 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Field Trials 15/204 15.38 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Thorney Island Trials 15/215 15.39 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Physical Modelling 15/223 15.40 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Terrain, Obstructions and Buildings 15/236 15.41 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Validation and Comparison 15/249 15.42 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Particular Gases 15/252 15.43 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from Elevated Sources 15/256 15.44 Dispersion of Dense Gas: Plumes from Elevated Sources
PLUME 15/266 15.45 Concentration and Concentration Fluctuations 15/269 15.46 Flammable Gas Clouds 15/279 15.47 Toxic Gas Clouds 15/28715.48 Dispersion over Short Distances 15/290 15.49 Hazard Ranges for Dispersion 15/293 15.50 Transformation and Removal Processes 15/295 15.51 Infiltration into Buildings 15/301 15.52 Source and Dispersion Modelling: CCPS Guidelines 15/305 15.53 Vapour Release Mitigation: Containment and Barriers 15/306 15.54 Vapour Cloud Mitigation: CCPS Guidelines 15/317 15.55 Fugitive Emissions 15/318 15.56 Leaks and Spillages 15/323 15.57 Notation 15/324 16 Fire 16/1 16.1 Fire 16/2 16.2 Flammability of Gases and Vapours 16/14 16.3 Combustion Phenomena 16/26 16.4 Flammability of Aerosols 16/53 16.5 Ignition Sources 16/56 16.6 Self-heating 16/66 16.7 Static Electricity 16/82 16.8 Electrical Equipment 16/128 16.9 Hazardous Area Classification 16/135 16.10 Ignition Models 16/146 16.11 Fire in Process Plant 16/154 16.12 Flames 16/159 16.13 Radiant Heat Transfer 16/160 16.14 Vapour Cloud Fires 16/172 16.15 Fireballs 16/176 16.16 Fireballs from Explosives 16/188 16.17 Pool Fires 16/190 16.18 Flares 16/207 16.19 Jet Flames 16/214 16.20 Engulfing Fires 16/223 16.21 Effects of Fire: Damage 16/235 16.22 Effects of Fire: Injury 16/239 16.23 Fire Protection of Process Plant 16/252 16.24 Passive Fire Protection 16/255 16.25 Fire fighting Agents 16/261 16.26 Fire Protection UsingWater: Extinguishment and Control 16/263 16.27 Fire Protection UsingWater: Exposure Protection 16/267 16.28 Fire Protection Using Foam 16/269 16.29 Fire Protection Using Dry Chemicals 16/272 16.30 Fire Protection Using Vaporizing Liquids 16/273 16.31 Fire Protection Using Inert Gas 16/276 16.32 Fire Protection Using Special Methods 16/276 16.33 Fire Protection Using Portable Extinguishers 16/277 16.34 Fire Protection Applications 16/277 16.35 Fire Fighting in Process Plant 16/279 16.36 Fire and Fire Protection in Buildings 16/283 16.37 Fire Protection in Transport 16/290 16.38 Fire Hazard 16/291 16.39 Hazard Range of Fire 16/292 16.40 Notation 16/29517 Explosion 17/1 17.1 Explosion 17/5 17.2 Detonation 17/6 17.3 Explosives 17/18 17.4 Explosion Energy 17/21 17.5 Deflagration inside Plant 17/31 17.6 Detonation inside Vessels and Pipes 17/34 17.7 Explosions in Closed Vessels 17/36 17.8 Explosions in Buildings 17/46 17.9 Explosions in Large Enclosures 17/48 17.10 Explosion Prevention 17/49 17.11 Explosion Protection 17/52 17.12 Explosion Venting of Vessels 17/60 17.13 ExplosionVenting of Ducts and Pipes 17/81 17.14 Explosion Relief of Buildings 17/87 17.15 Explosion Relief of Large Enclosures 17/90 17.16 Venting of Reactors 17/94 17.17 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: DIERS 17/97 17.18 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Vent Flow 17/100 17.19 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Vent Sizing 17/102 17.20 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: Leung Model 17/106 17.21 Venting of Reactors and Vessels: ICI Scheme 17/108 17.22 Venting of Reactors: Relief Disposal 17/111 17.23 Venting of Reactors: CCPS Work 17/117 17.24 Venting of Storage Vessels 17/118 17.25 Explosive Shock in Air 17/119 17.26 Condensed Phase Explosions 17/122 17.27 Vessel Burst Explosions 17/128 17.28 Vapour Cloud Explosions 17/134 17.29 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosions 17/167 17.30 Explosions in Process Plant 17/174 17.31 Effects of Explosions 17/177 17.32 Explosion Damage to Structures 17/181 17.33 Explosion Damage to Housing 17/193 17.34 Explosion Damage by Missiles 17/196 17.35 Explosion Damage to Plant byMissiles 17/214 17.36 Explosion of a Cased Explosive 17/216 17.37 Explosion of an Explosive Load 17/221 17.38 Explosion Injury to Persons Outdoors 17/223 17.39 Explosion Injury to Persons Indoors 17/230 17.40 Explosion Injury from Flying Glass 17/233 17.41 Explosion Injury from Penetrating Fragments 17/243 17.42 Explosion Injury from Penetrating Fragments: Model of Gilbert, Lees and Scilly 17/245 17.43 Dust Explosions 17/249 17.44 Dust Explosibility Characteristics 17/252 17.45 Dust Ignition Sources 17/260 17.46 Dust Explosion Prevention 17/263 17.47 Dust Explosion Protection 17/266 17.48 Dust Explosion Venting 17/268 17.49 Dust-handling Plant 17/281 17.50 Dust Fires 17/286 17.51 Explosion Hazard 17/288 17.52 Hazard Range of Explosions 17/292 17.53 Notation 17/293 18 Toxic Release 18/1 18.1 Toxic Effects 18/2 18.2 Toxic Substances 18/8 18.3 ToxicityAssessment 18/9 18.4 Control of Toxic Hazard: Regulatory Controls 18/14 18.5 Hygiene Standards 18/16 18.6 Hygiene Standards: Occupational Exposure Limits 18/18 18.7 Carcinogens 18/21 18.8 Dusts 18/25 18.9 Metals 18/26 18.10 Emergency Exposure Limits 18/26 18.11 Gas Toxicity 18/27 18.12 Gas Toxicity: Experimental Determination 18/28 18.13 Gas Toxicity: Physiological Factors 18/29 18.14 Gas Toxicity: Toxicity Data 18/33 18.15 Gas Toxicity: Vulnerability Model 18/34 18.16 Gas Toxicity: Major Industrial Gases 18/36 18.17 Gas Toxicity: MHAP Studies 18/41 18.18 Gas Toxicity: Chlorine 18/42 18.19 Gas Toxicity: Green Book Relations 18/55 18.20 Gas Toxicity: Probit Equations 18/55 18.21 Gas Toxicity: HSE Dangerous Dose 18/56 18.22 Gas Toxicity: Combustion Gases 18/58 18.23 Ultratoxic Substances 18/59 18.24 Plant Design for Toxic Substances 18/59 18.25 Toxic Gas Detection 18/60 18.26 Toxic Release Response 18/60 18.27 Toxic Release Case Histories 18/61 18.28 Toxic Release Risk 18/64 18.29 Chlorine Hazard Assessment 18/66 18.30 Other Chemicals Hazard Assessment 18/75 18.31 Hazard Assessment Methodology 18/76 18.32 Notation 18/77 19 Plant Commissioning and Inspection 19/1 19.1 Plant Commissioning 19/2 19.2 Plant Inspection 19/14 19.3 Pressure Vessel Inspection 19/2019.4 Pressure Piping Systems Inspection 19/24 19.5 Non-destructive Testing 19/25 19.6 Materials Verification 19/29 19.7 Pressure Testing 19/29 19.8 Leak Testing and Detection 19/31 19.9 Plant Monitoring 19/32 19.10 PerformanceMonitoring 19/34 19.11 Condition Monitoring 19/34 19.12 Vibration Monitoring 19/39 19.13 Corrosion Monitoring 19/42 19.14 Acoustic Emission Monitoring 19/44 19.15 Plant Monitoring: Specific Equipment 19/47 19.16 Pipeline Inspection and Monitoring 19/47 19.17 Notation 19/48 20 Plant Operation 20/1 20.1 Operating Discipline 20/2 20.2 Operating Procedures and Instructions 20/2 20.3 Emergency Procedures 20/6 20.4 Handover and Permit Systems 20/8 20.5 Operator Training 20/8 20.6 Plant Patrols 20/9 20.7 Modifications to the Process 20/9 20.8 Operation and Maintenance 20/9 20.9 Start-up and Shut-down 20/9 20.10 Start-up of Refinery Units 20/11 20.11 Shut-down of Refinery Units 20/12 20.12 Operation of Fired Heaters 20/13 20.13 Operation of Driers 20/14 20.14 Operation of Storage 20/14 20.15 Operational Activities and Hazards 20/16 20.16 Sampling 20/18 20.17 Trip Systems 20/20 20.18 Identification Measures 20/20 20.19 Exposure of Personnel 20/20 20.20 Security 20/21 20.21 Notation 20/22 21 Equipment Maintenance and Modification 21/1 21.1 Management of Maintenance 21/2 21.2 Hazards of Maintenance 21/5 21.3 Preparation for Maintenance 21/6 21.4 Isolation 21/7 21.5 Purging 21/10 21.6 Cleaning 21/10 21.7 Confined Spaces 21/12 21.8 Permit Systems 21/14 21.9 Maintenance Equipment 21/21 21.10 Flanged Joints 21/25 21.11 Hot Work 21/27 21.12 Tank Cleaning, Repair and Demolition 21/33 21.13 On-Line Repairs 21/35 21.14 Maintenance of Particular Equipment 21/36 21.15 Equipment Removal 21/38 21.16 Deteriorated Equipment 21/38 21.17 Some Maintenance Problems 21/39 21.18 Major Shut-Downs 21/39 21.19 Maintenance Information Systems 21/41 21.20 Spares Inventory 21/42 21.21 Computer Systems 21/43 21.22 Modifications to Equipment 21/44 21.23 Managing Change 21/47 21.24 Some Modification Problems 21/50 21.25 Major Plant Expansions 21/50 21.26 Notation 21/51 22 Storage 22/1 22.1 General Considerations 22/4 22.2 Petroleum Products Storage 22/5 22.3 Storage Tanks and Vessels 22/5 22.4 Storage Layout 22/13 22.5 Venting and Relief 22/16 22.6 Fire Prevention and Protection 22/19 22.7 LPG Storage 22/20 22.8 LPG Storage: Pressure Storage 22/20 22.9 LPG Storage: Refrigerated Storage 22/33 22.10 LNG Storage 22/35 22.11 LNG Storage: Refrigerated Storage 22/36 22.12 Hydrogen Storage 22/40 22.13 Toxics Storage 22/40 22.14 High Toxic Hazard Materials: CCPS Guidelines 22/42 22.15 Chlorine Storage 22/42 22.16 Ammonia Storage 22/46 22.17 Ammonia Storage: Pressure Storage 22/48 22.18 Ammonia Storage: Refrigerated Storage 22/49 22.19 Ammonia Storage: Stress Corrosion Cracking 22/51 22.20 Other Chemicals Storage 22/53 22.21 Bunds 22/55 22.22 Underground Storage Tanks 22/58 22.23 Glass Reinforced Plastic Storage 22/59 22.24 Filling Ratio 22/61 22.25 Loading and Unloading Facilities 22/61 22.26 Loading and Unloading Facilities: Particular Chemicals 22/65 22.27 Drum and Cylinder Storage 22/65 22.28 Warehouses 22/66 22.29 Warehouses: Particular Chemicals Storage 22/70 22.30 Storage Case Histories 22/71 22.31 Storage Risk 22/72 22.32 LPG Storage Hazard Assessment 22/73 22.33 LNG Storage Hazard Assessment 22/76 22.34 Ammonia Storage Hazard Assessment 22/77 22.35 Notation 22/77 23 Transport 23/1 23.1 General Considerations 23/6 23.2 International Codes 23/7 23.3 Classification, Packaging and Labelling 23/9 23.4 Transport Containers 23/12 23.5 Road Transport 23/1423.6 Road Transport Environment 23/17 23.7 Rail Transport 23/32 23.8 Rail Transport Environment 23/34 23.9 Road and Rail Tunnels 23/37 23.10 Waterway Transport 23/37 23.11 Pipeline Transport 23/37 23.12 Marine Transport: Shipping 23/42 23.13 Marine Transport:Regulatory Controls 23/46 23.14 Marine Transport: Ports and Harbours 23/50 23.15 Marine Transport: Shipboard Fire and Fire Protection 2/52 23.16 Marine Transport: Liquefied Flammable Gas 23/57 23.17 Marine Transport: Chemicals 23/61 23.18 Marine Transport Environment 23/62 23.19 Air Transport 23/69 23.20 Transport Emergency Planning and Spill Control 23/69 23.21 Transport Case Histories 23/73 23.22 Tranport Risk 23/77 23.23 Tranport Hazard Assessment 23/79 23.24 Road Tranport Hazard Assessment 23/79 23.25 Rail Transport Hazard Assessment 23/80 23.26 Tunnel Tranport Hazard Assessment 23/81 23.27 Pipeline Transport Hazard Assessment 23/82 23.28 Marine Transport Hazard Assessment 23/83 23.29 Tranport Hazard Assessment: Comparative Risk 23/86 23.30 Security Issues 23/86 23.30 Notation 23/89 24 Emergency Planning 24/1 24.1 Introduction 24/3 24.2 On-site Emergency Planning 24/3 24.3 Resources and Capabilities 24/5 24.4 Developing an Emergency Plan 24/8 24.5 Training 24/9 24.6 Essential Functions and Nominated Personnel 24/9 24.7 Declaration and Communication of the Emergency 24/10 24.8 Cooperation and Drills 24/11 24.9 Public Relations 24/11 24.10 Off-site Emergency Planning 24/11 24.11 Transport Emergency Planning 24/12 24.12 Spectators 24/13 24.13 Emergency Incidents 24/13 24.14 Recovery 24/14 24.15 Regulations and Standards 24/15 24.16 Literature 24/15 Appendix A: NFPA Publications 24/15 25 Personal Safety 25/1 25.1 Human Factors 25/2 25.2 Occupational Health 25/6 25.3 Occupational Hygiene 25/7 25.4 COSHH Regulations 1988 25/11 25.5 Dust Hazards 25/15 25.6 Asbestos Dust 25/16 25.7 Ventilation 25/17 25.8 Skin Disease 25/20 25.9 Physico-chemical Hazards 25/20 25.10 Ionizing Radiation Hazards 25/22 25.11 Non-ionizing Radiation Hazards 25/23 25.12 Machinery Hazards 25/24 25.13 Electricity Hazards 25/26 25.14 Other Activities and Hazards 25/26 25.15 Personal Protective Equipment 25/29 25.16 Respiratory Protective Equipment 25/30 25.17 Rescue and First Aid 25/33 25.18 Notation 25/34 26 Accident Research 26/1 26.1 General Considerations 26/2 26.2 Definition of Accidents 26/3 26.3 Classification of Accidents 26/3 26.4 Causes of Accidents 26/3 26.5 Accident Models 26/3 26.6 Accident Proneness Plan 26/5 26.7 Human Error 26/6 26.8 Risk-taking 26/6 26.9 Social Factors 26/6 26.10 Accident Prevention 26/8 26.11 Safety Training 26/8 26.12 Major Hazards Research 26/8 27 Information Feedback 27/1 27.1 The Learning Process 27/2 27.2 Incident Reporting 27/3 27.3 Operations Monitoring 27/3 27.4 Accident Models 27/4 27.5 Accident Investigation 27/5 27.6 Fire Investigation 27/11 27.7 Explosion Investigation 27/12 27.8 Accident Investigation: CCPS Guidelines 27/14 27.9 Public Accident Inquiries 27/15 27.10 Organizational Memory 27/18 27.11 Case Histories 27/18 27.12 Information Exchange 27/18 27.13 Accident Databases 27/19 27.14 Safety Performance Measurement 27/19 27.15 Safety Performance Monitoring 27/20 27.16 Near Miss Reporting 27/23 27.17 Education 27/24 27.18 Teaching Aids 27/26 27.19 Notation 27/28 28 Safety Management Systems 28/128.1 Safety Culture 28/2 28.2 Safety Organization 28/228.3 Safety Policy Statement 28/5 28.4 Safety Representatives 28/5 28.5 Safety Committees 28/6 28.6 Safety Adviser 28/6 28.7 Safety Training 28/6 28.8 Safety Communication 28/7 28.9 SafetyAuditing 28/9 28.10 Safety Rating 28/9 29 Computer Aids 29/1 29.1 Computer Aided Process Engineering 29/2 29.2 Pipework and Fluid Flow 29/2 29.3 Unit Operation and Equipment 29/2 29.4 Databases, Bibliographies and Indexes 29/3 29.5 Compliance Management 29/3 29.6 Computational Fluid Dynamics 29/3 29.7 Hazard Identification 29/3 29.8 Pressure Relief Devices Sizing 29/3 29.9 Hazard Assessment Systems 29/4 29.10 Emergency Response Simulation 29/5 29.11 Transport 29/5 30 Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems 30/1 30.1 Knowledge Representation 30/6 30.2 Databases 30/7 30.3 Prepositional logic 30/8 30.4 Predicate Logic 30/9 30.5 Non-deductive Inference 30/10 30.6 Production Rules 30/10 30.7 Non-classical Logics 30/10 30.8 Uncertainty and Inconsistency 30/11 30.9 Probabilistic Reasoning 30/13 30.10 Fuzzy Logic 30/14 30.11 Programming Languages 30/14 30.12 Structured Knowledge 30/17 30.13 Search 30/19 30.14 Matching and Pattern Recognition 30/22 30.15 Problem-solving and Games 30/22 30.16 Vision 30/23 30.17 Natural Language 30/24 30.18 Planning 30/24 30.19 Learning 30/28 30.20 Inductive Learning 30/29 30.21 Neural Networks 30/31 30.22 Graphs,Trees and Networks 30/31 30.23 Directed Graphs 30/32 30.24 Expert Systems 30/34 30.25 Expert Systems: Some Systems and Tools 30/38 30.26 Qualitative Modelling 30/41 30.27 Engineering Design 30/43 30.28 Process Applications 30/44 30.29 Project Aids 30/45 30.30 Process Modelling 30/48 30.31 DESIGN-KIT 30/48 30.32 Process Synthesis 30/49 30.33 Plant Design: Synthesis 30/50 30.34 Plant Design: Analysis 30/58 30.35 Expert Systems: Some Process Systems 30/58 30.36 Fault Propagation 30/59 30.37 Hazard Identification 30/63 30.38 Hazard Identification: HAZID 30/65 30.39 Hazard Identification: Enhancements 30/67 30.40 Fault Tree Analysis 30/76 30.41 Fault Tree Synthesis 30/77 30.42 Fault Tree Synthesis: FAULTFINDER 30/79 30.43 Operating Procedure Synthesis 30/81 30.44 Process Monitoring 30/92 30.45 Fault Administration 30/93 30.46 Malfunction Detection 30/100 30.47 Notation 30/105 31 Incident Investigation 31/1 31.1 Preface 31/1 31.2 General Investigation Concepts 31/1 31.3 Evidence Issues 31/8 31.4 The Investigation Team 31/14 31.5 Identifying Root Causes 31/18 31.6 Recommendations, Reports and Lessons Learned 31/25 31.7 Management Systems for Investigations 31/28 32 Inherently Safer Design 32/1 32.1 Introduction 32/2 32.2 Definitions 32/2 32.3 History of Inherently Safer Design 32/2 32.4 Strategies for Process Risk Management 32/3 32.5 Inherently Safer Design Strategies 32/5 32.6 Inherently Safer Design Conflicts 32/10 32.7 Measuring Inherent Safety Characteristics of a Process 32/11 32.8 Inherently Safer Design and the Process Life Cycle 32/18 32.9 Implementing Inherently Safer Design 32/19 32.10 Inherently Safer Design References 32/23 33 Reactive Chemicals 33/1 (by Marc E. Levin, Sima Chervin, William J. Rogers and M. Sam Mannan) 33.1 Background 33/2 33.2 Technical 33/7 33.3 Programme management 33/46 34 Safety Instrumented Systems 34/1 34.1 Introduction 34/2 34.2 Examples of SIS 34/3 34.3 SIS Standards 34/5 34.4 Layers of Protection Analysis 34/7 34.5 Level of Automation 34/13 34.6 Design 34/12 34.7 Verify 34/21 34.8 Operate 34/25 34.9 Maintain 34/2734.10 Test 34/27 34.11 Special Applications 34/29 35 Chemical Security 35/1 35.1 Introduction 35/2 35.2 Security Management System 35/2 35.3 Security Strategies 35/3 35.4 Countermeasures and Security Risk Management Concepts 35/3 35.5 SVA Methodologies 35/3 35.6 Defining the Risk to be Managed 35/4 35.7 Overview of a SVA Methodology 35/6