Fire behavior of upholstered furniture and mattresses

1 Introduction ............................................................................ 1 1.3.0 UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE STRUCTURE AND MATERIALS ........................................................................ 2 1.4.0 UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE AND MATTRESSES ....... 5 1.5.0 DESIGN AND FIRE SAFETY ............................................. 5 1.6.0 UPHOLSTERED ITEM FIRE STATISTICS ....................... 7 1.7.0 SUMMARY OF REGULATORY DEVELOPMENT ........ 10 2 Fundamentals ........................................................................ 18 2.1.0 PYROLYSIS AND COMBUSTION .................................. 18 2.2.0 SMOLDERING ................................................................... 21 2.2.1 Cellulosic Material ............................................... 21 2.2.2 Polyurethane Foam ............................................... 26 2.3.0 TRANSITION TO FLAMING............................................ 27 2.4.0 FLAMING IGNITION ........................................................ 30 1.1.0 OVERVIEW .......................................................................... 1 1.2.0 ARRANGEMENT OF THIS BOOK .................................... 2 x Contents 2.5.0 FLAME SPREAD ............................................................... 34 2.6.0 HEAT RELEASE ................................................................ 39 2.6.1 Heat Release Rate ................................................. 39 2.6.2 Heat of Combustion .............................................. 42 2.6.3 Effect of The Ignition Source On The HRR Curve in Full-Scale Tests...................................... 51 2.7.0 PROPAGATING AND NON-PROPAGATING FIRES .... 52 2.8.0 INTER-ITEM SPREAD ...................................................... 56 2.9.0 INTERACTION WITH ENCLOSURE .............................. 62 2.10.0 FLASHOVER...................................................................... 63 2.11.0 SMOKE AND TOXIC GASES ........................................... 66 2.11.1 General .................................................................. 66 2.11.2 Smoke ................................................................... 67 2.11.3 Toxic Gases .......................................................... 72 3 Test Methods, Standards and Regulations ......................... 83 3.1.0 CIGARETTE IGNITION .................................................... 83 3.1.1 Introduction........................................................... 83 3.1.2 Upholstered Furniture ........................................... 87 3.1.3 Mattresses ............................................................. 96 3.1.4 Test Criteria For Cigarette Ignition Resistance .... 97 3.1.5 Critiques of Cigarette Ignition Standards ............. 99 3.2.0 FLAMING FIRE TESTS, STANDARDS, AND REGULATIONS ............................................................... 102 3.2.1 Introduction......................................................... 102 3.2.2 Uses and Limitations of Flaming Fire Tests ....... 103 3.2.3 Description of Flaming Fire Tests ...................... 108 3.2.4 Development of Full-scale HRR Measurement Techniques .......................................................... 140 3.2.5 Flame Spread - Standard Tests ........................... 142 3.2.6 Transportation Seating Tests and Regulations ... 143 3.2.7 Miscellaneous Tests ............................................ 150 Contents xi 3.3.0 SMOKE AND TOXIC GASES ......................................... 151 3.3.1 Smoke Tests ........................................................ 151 3.3.2 Toxicity Tests ..................................................... 156 4 Ignition Sources .................................................................. 163 4.1.0 MATCHES, SMALL GAS FLAMES, AND METHENAMINE PILLS.................................................. 168 4.2.0 WOOD CRIBS .................................................................. 171 4.3.0 NEWSPAPER SHEETS AND THEIR GAS BURNER REPLACEMENTS ............................................................ 175 4.4.0 WASTE PAPER BASKETS: REAL AND SIMULATED .. 178 4.5.0 RADIANT FLUX IGNITION SOURCES ........................ 179 4.6.0 OTHER IGNITION SOURCES AND LOCATIONS ....... 179 4.7.0 LARGE OPEN-FLAME OR RADIATION SOURCES ... 182 5 Effects of Test Apparatus and of Test Scale..................... 187 5.1.0 COMPARISON OF BENCH-SCALE RESULTS ............ 187 5.1.1 Comparison of Fabric and Fabric/Padding Composite Test Results ...................................... 188 5.2.0 COMPARISON OF BENCH AND FULL-SCALE RESULTS ......................................................................... 190 5.2.1 Flammability Results .......................................... 190 5.2.2 Comparison of Cone Calorimeter and Full-Scale Results ................................................................. 191 5.2.3 Comparison of Furniture Calorimeter and Room Results ................................................................. 200 5.2.4 Smoke Results .................................................... 204 5.2.5 Toxicity Test Results .......................................... 204 6 Upholstered Item Design Engineering .............................. 207 6.1.0 IGNITION RESISTANCE TO CIGARETTES ................ 207 6.1.1 Effect of Fabrics ................................................. 213 6.1.2 Effect of Padding Material ................................. 217 xii Contents 6.1.3 Effect of Interliner (Barrier, Blocking) Materials .. 218 6.1.4 Effect of Welt Cords and Trim ........................... 218 6.1.5 Effect of Configuration ....................................... 219 6.1.6 Effect of Moisture ............................................... 219 6.1.7 Cigarette—Upholstered Item Interaction ........... 220 6.1.8 Low Ignition Propensity Cigarettes .................... 225 6.2.0 FLAMING FIRES ............................................................. 237 6.2.1 Ignitability ........................................................... 237 6.2.2 Post-Ignition Behavior ........................................ 244 6.2.3 Flame Spread ...................................................... 299 6.3.0 SMOKE ............................................................................ 302 6.4.0 TOXIC PRODUCTS ......................................................... 307 6.5.0 FIRE INVESTIGATIONS ................................................ 316 7 Modeling .............................................................................. 320 7.1.0 INTRODUCTION TO MODELING ................................ 320 7.2.0 FURNITURE FIRE MODELS.......................................... 322 7.2.1 Physics-Based Models ........................................ 323 7.2.2 Combined Physics/Correlation Models .............. 328 7.2.3 Correlations-Based Models ................................ 331 7.3.0 A COMPONENT HRR MODEL FOR FURNITURE COMPOSITES .................................................................. 339 7.4.0 CFD ROOM FIRE MODELS ........................................... 342 8 Fire Hazard Analysis .......................................................... 346 8.1.0 SMOLDERING FIRES ..................................................... 346 8.2.0 FLAMING FIRES ............................................................. 347 8.2.1 Small Closed Rooms........................................... 347 8.2.2 Open (Ventilated) Rooms ................................... 348 8.3.0 THE ROLE OF HRR ......................................................... 351 8.4.0 THE ROLE OF OTHER FACTORS................................. 352 Contents xiii 8.5.0 RELATIONSHIP OF HRR AND AVAILABLE ESCAPE TIME ............................................................................ 354 8.6.0 HAZARD PREDICTIONS BASED ON MODELING ..... 354 9 Conclusions ......................................................................... 358 Exercises and Solutions ............................................................ 360 EXERCISES ............................................................................ 360 SOLUTIONS ............................................................................ 367 Abbreviations ............................................................................ 377 References.................................................................................. 379 Index .......................................................................................... 423