Guidelines for design solutions to process equipment failures.

Contents Foreword ............................................................................... xiii Preface .................................................................................. xv Acknowledgments ................................................................. xvii 1. Introduction ................................................................... 1 1.1 Objectives .......................................................................... 1 1.2 Scope ................................................................................. 2 1.3 Background ........................................................................ 2 1.4 Applicability and Audience ................................................. 3 1.5 Organization of This Book ................................................. 3 1.6 References ........................................................................ 4 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 4 2. Technique for Selecting the Design Bases for Process Safety Systems ............................................... 5 2.1 Risk-Based Design Decisions ............................................ 5 2.2 The Concept of Risk .......................................................... 7 2.3 Selection of Design Bases for Safety Systems .................. 9 2.3.1 Step 1: Identify Failure Scenarios ....................... 9 2.3.2 Step 2: Estimate the Consequences ................... 9 2.3.3 Step 3: Determine Tolerability of Consequences ................................................... 11 2.3.4 Step 4: Estimate Likelihood and Risk .................. 11 2.3.5 Step 5: Determine Tolerability of Risk ................. 12 vi Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 2.3.6 Step 6: Consider Enhanced and/or Alternative Designs ............................................ 12 2.3.7 Step 7: Evaluate Enhancements and/or Alternatives ........................................................ 13 2.3.8 Step 8: Determine Tolerability of Risk and Cost ................................................................... 13 2.3.9 Step 9: Document Results .................................. 13 2.4 Guidelines for Risk Tolerability .......................................... 14 2.5 Potential Process Safety Systems Design Solutions ......... 20 2.5.1 Four Categories of Design Solutions ................... 20 2.5.2 Characteristics of Design Solution Categories ......................................................... 24 2.6 Applying the Risk-Based Design Bases Selection Technique .......................................................................... 27 2.6.1 Locking Open a Valve (a Simple Design Case) ................................................................. 27 2.6.2 Selecting the Relief System Basis for a Reactor (a Complex Design Case) ..................... 30 2.7 References ........................................................................ 34 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 35 3. Vessels ........................................................................... 37 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 37 3.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 37 3.2.1 Storage Tank Autopolymerization Incident .......... 37 3.2.2 Storage Tank Stratification Incident .................... 38 3.2.3 Batch Pharmaceutical Reactor Accident ............. 39 3.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 40 3.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 40 3.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 40 3.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 41 Contents vii This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 3.5 References ........................................................................ 43 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 44 Table 3. Failure Scenarios for Vessels ...................................... 45 4. Reactors ......................................................................... 61 4.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 61 4.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 61 4.2.1 Seveso Runaway Reaction ................................. 62 4.2.2 3,4-Dichloroaniline Autoclave Incident ................ 62 4.2.3 Continuous Sulfonation Reaction Explosion ........ 63 4.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 63 4.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 64 4.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 64 4.4.2 General Discussion ............................................ 64 4.4.3 Special Considerations ....................................... 66 4.5 References ........................................................................ 67 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 68 Table 4. Failure Scenarios for Reactors .................................... 69 5. Mass Transfer Equipment ............................................ 79 5.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 79 5.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 79 5.2.1 Distillation Column Critical Concentration ........... 80 5.2.2 Ethylene Purifier Vessel Rupture ........................ 80 5.2.3 Ignition of Pyrophoric Materials in Gasoline Fractionator ........................................................ 81 5.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 82 5.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 82 5.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 82 5.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 82 viii Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 5.5 References ........................................................................ 83 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 83 Table 5. Failure Scenarios for Mass Transfer Equipment ......... 84 6. Heat Transfer Equipment ............................................. 89 6.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 89 6.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 89 6.2.1 Ethylene Oxide Redistillation Column Explosion ........................................................... 89 6.2.2 Brittle Fracture of a Heat Exchanger ................... 90 6.2.3 Cold Box Explosion ............................................ 91 6.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 92 6.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 92 6.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 92 6.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 92 6.5 References ........................................................................ 93 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 94 Table 6. Failure Scenarios for Heat Transfer Equipment .......... 95 7. Dryers ............................................................................. 101 7.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 101 7.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 101 7.2.1 Drying of Compound Fertilizers .......................... 102 7.2.2 Fires in Cellulose Acetate Dryer ......................... 102 7.2.3 Pharmaceutical Powder Dryer Fire and Explosion ........................................................... 102 7.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 103 7.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 103 7.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 103 7.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 103 Contents ix This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 7.5 References ........................................................................ 104 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 104 Table 7. Failure Scenarios for Dryers ........................................ 106 8. Fluid Transfer Equipment ............................................. 117 8.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 117 8.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 117 8.2.1 Reciprocating Pump Leak ................................... 117 8.2.2 Pump Leak Fire .................................................. 118 8.2.3 Compressor Fire and Explosion .......................... 118 8.2.4 Start-up of Parallel Centrifugal Pumps ................ 119 8.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 119 8.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 119 8.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 119 8.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 120 8.5 References ........................................................................ 121 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 121 Table 8. Failure Scenarios for Fluid Transfer Equipment .......... 122 9. Solid-Fluid Separators .................................................. 127 9.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 127 9.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 127 9.2.1 Batch Centrifuge Explosion ................................ 128 9.2.2 Filter Explosion .................................................. 128 9.2.3 Dust Collector Explosion .................................... 129 9.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 129 9.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 130 9.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 130 9.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 130 9.5 References ........................................................................ 131 x Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 131 Table 9. Failure Scenarios for Solid-Fluid Separators ............... 132 10. Solids Handling and Processing Equipment .............. 137 10.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 137 10.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 138 10.2.1 Silicon Grinder Fire and Explosion ...................... 138 10.2.2 Blowing Agent Blender Operation Explosion Incident .............................................................. 138 10.2.3 Screw Conveyor Explosion ................................. 139 10.2.4 Bucket Elevator Explosion .................................. 139 10.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 139 10.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 140 10.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 140 10.4.2 General Discussion ............................................ 140 10.4.3 Special Considerations ....................................... 140 10.5 References ........................................................................ 142 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 143 Table 10. Failure Scenarios for Solids Handling and Processing Equipment ....................................................... 144 11. Fired Equipment ............................................................ 149 11.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 149 11.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 149 11.2.1 Light-off Error ..................................................... 149 11.2.2 Ethylene Cracking Furnace Overfiring ................ 150 11.2.3 Furnace Tube Failure ......................................... 150 11.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 151 11.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 151 11.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 151 Contents xi This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 11.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 151 11.5 References ........................................................................ 152 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 153 Table 11. Failure Scenarios for Fired Equipment ...................... 154 12. Piping and Piping Components ................................... 161 12.1 Introduction ........................................................................ 161 12.2 Past Incidents .................................................................... 161 12.2.1 Flixborough Expansion Joint Failure ................... 161 12.2.2 Chemical Storage Terminal Fire ......................... 162 12.2.3 Line Pluggage .................................................... 163 12.2.4 External Corrosion ............................................. 163 12.3 Failure Scenarios and Design Solutions ............................ 163 12.4 Discussion ......................................................................... 164 12.4.1 Use of Potential Design Solutions Table ............. 164 12.4.2 Special Considerations ....................................... 164 12.5 References ........................................................................ 166 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 166 Table 12. Failure Scenario for Piping and Piping Components ...................................................................... 168 Appendix A Example Problem: Batch Chemical Reactor ........................................................................... 179 A.1 System Description ............................................................ 179 A.2 General Information Requirements .................................... 181 A.3 PSS Discussion for Batch Reactors .................................. 182 A.3.1 Vessel Design and Primary Containment ............ 182 A.3.2 Control Systems and Safe Automation ............... 183 A.3.3 Pressure and Vacuum Relief .............................. 186 A.3.4 Fixed Fire Protection and Passive Mitigation ....... 187 xii Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. A.4 Selection of Design Bases for Safety Systems .................. 187 A.5 Ignition of Flammable Atmosphere in the Reactor Vapor Space Caused by Static Discharge Spark (Failure Scenario A) ........................................................... 193 A.6 Cooling System Control Failure (Failure Scenario B) ........ 194 A.7 External Fire (Failure Scenario C) ..................................... 196 A.8 Loss of Sealing Fluid to Reactor Agitator Mechanical Seal (Failure Scenario D) ................................................... 197 A.9 Ignition of Flammable Atmosphere in Reactor Vapor Space Caused by Hot Mechanical Seal (Failure Scenario E) ........................................................................ 199 A.10 Documentation ................................................................... 200 References ................................................................................ 201 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 201 Appendix B Example Problem: Distillation System ........ 203 B.1 System Description ............................................................ 204 B.2 General Information Requirements .................................... 204 B.3 PSS Discussion for Distillation Operations ........................ 206 B.3.1 Vessel Design and Primary Containment ............ 206 B.3.2 Control Systems and Safe Automation ............... 207 B.3.3 Pressure and Vacuum Relief .............................. 209 B.3.4 Fixed Fire Protection, Passive Mitigation and System-Wide Concerns ...................................... 210 B.4 Design Basis Selection Process ........................................ 210 B.5 Uncontrolled Energy Input (Failure Scenario A) ................ 215 B.6 External Fire (Failure Scenario B) ...................................... 220 B.7 Internal Deflagration (Failure Scenario C) ......................... 225 B.8 Vacuum Collapse of the Column (Failure Scenario D) ........................................................................ 226 Contents xiii This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. B.9 Blocked-in Liquids in Heat Transfer Equipment (Failure Scenario E) ........................................................... 230 B.10 Documentation ................................................................... 230 References ................................................................................ 233 Suggested Additional Reading ....................................... 234 Glossary ............................................................................... 235 Acronyms and Abbreviations ............................................. 245 Index ..................................................................................... 249