Inulin-type fructans : functional food ingredients

Chapter 1 Functional Foods and Claims: Concepts, Strategy of Development, Requirements for the Scientific Substantiation of Claims, and Communication with Consumers 1.1 Nutrition in the 20th Century: From Prevention of Deficiencies to Reduction of Risk Due to Excessive Consumption of Nutrients 1.2 Nutrition at the Turn of the 21st Century: New Challenges 1.3 The Concept of Optimum Nutrition 1.3.1 Functional Food: A Nutrition Concept 1.3.2 Functional Food: A Consensus of the European Scientific Community 1.3.3 The Strategy for Functional Food Development 1.3.4 Type A and Type B Claims 1.3.5 The Communication Challenge 1.3.6 Communication on the Functional Effects of a Prebiotic: An Example 1.3.7 Perspectives in Functional Food Development and the Case of the Prebiotics References Chapter 2 The Gastrointestinal System: A Major Target for Functional Foods 2.1 The Anatomy of the Gastrointestinal System 2.2 The Digestive Functions 2.2.1 Digestion and Fermentation 2.2.1.1 The Oral Cavity 2.2.1.2 The Stomach 2.2.1.3 Exocrine Pancreas, the Bile, and the Small Intestine 2.2.1.4 The Large Bowel and Colonic Microflora 2.2.2 The Absorption 2.2.3 Excretion 2.2.4 Motility 2.3 Endocrinology: Peptide Hormones 2.4 Defense Mechanisms References PART II Inulin: Origin, Chemistry, Biochemistry, and Technological Properties Chapter 3 Inulin: A Fructan 3.1 Fructans 3.1.1 Definition 3.1.2 Chemistry of Linear, Branched, and Cyclic Fructans 3.1.3 Biochemistry: The Biosynthetic Pathways of Fructans 3.1.4 Natural Occurrence of Fructans 3.1.4.1 Occurrence of Fructans in Plants 3.1.4.2 Occurrence of Fructans in Fungi 3.1.4.3 Occurrence of Fructans in Bacteria 3.2 Inulin 3.2.1 History of Inulin 3.2.2 Chemistry and Biochemistry of Inulin 3.2.3 Distribution of Inulin in Plants 3.2.4 Biological Functions of Inulin in Plants 3.3 Chicory Inulin 3.3.1 Description of Chicory Inulin 3.3.2 Nomenclature of Inulin 3.3.3 Industrial Production of Inulin and Oligofructose and Related Products 3.3.4 Technological Properties of Chicory Inulin and Oligofructose 3.3.5 Analytical Methodologies Reference Chapter 4 The Digestive Functions: Inulin-Type Fructans as Nondigestible Oligosaccharides 4.1 Digestion of Carbohydrates in the Gastrointestinal Tract 4.1.1 Carbohydrate Hydrolysis in the Oral Cavity and the Stomach 4.1.2 Carbohydrate Hydrolysis in the Small Intestine 4.1.3 Methods to Study the Digestibility of Oligo and Polysaccharides 4.2 Absorption of Hexoses in the Small Intestine 4.3 Inulin-Type Fructans as Nondigestible Oligosaccharides (NDOs) 4.3.1 Methodologies and Results 4.3.1.1 Linkage Analysis of Inulin-Type Fructans 4.3.1.2 In Vitro Models To Demonstrate Resistance of Inulin-Type Fructans to Digestion 4.3.1.3 Rat Models to Demonstrate, In Vivo, the Resistance of Inulin- Type Fructans to Digestion 4.3.1.4 Human Models To Demonstrate, In Vivo, the Resistance of Inulin-Type Fructans to Digestion 4.3.1.5 Experimental and Human Data Demonstrating That Inulin- Type Fructans Resist Digestion 4.4. Inulin-Type Fructans as Nondigestible Oligosaccharides: Discussion and Conclusion References Chapter 5 The Digestive Functions: Inulin-Type Fructans as Fermentable Carbohydrates 5.1 The Colon as a Fermenter 5.2 The Anaerobic Fermentation of Proteins 5.3 Anaerobic Fermentation of Carbohydrates 5.3.1 Introduction 5.3.2 Substrates of Colonic Carbohydrate Fermentation 5.3.3 Anaerobic Degradation of Carbohydrates during Colonic Fermentation 5.3.3.1 Hydrolysis of Oligo- and Polysaccharides 5.3.3.2 Catabolic Pathways of Carbohydrates in Colonic Microorganisms 5.3.3.3 Metabolic Pathways Transforming Pyruvate in Colonic Microorganisms 5.3.4 Overview of the Biochemistry of Production of Fermentation End Products by Human Colonic Microflora 5.3.4.1 The Concept of Healthy Colonic Microflora 5.3.4.2 Production of SCFAs 5.3.4.3 Production of Lactate 5.3.4.4 Production of Gases 5.3.4.5 Metabolism of H2 5.3.5 Methodologies for the Study of the Colonic Fermentation of Carbohydrate 5.3.5.1 Introduction 5.3.5.2 In Vitro Models to Study the Fermentation of Carbohydrates by the Colonic Microflora 5.3.5.3 In Vivo Models to Study the Fermentation of Carbohydrates by the Colonic Microflora 5.4 Anaerobic Fermentation of Inulin-Type Fructans 5.4.1 The Process of Fermentation: Results and Discussion 5.4.1.1 In Vitro Data 5.4.1.2 In Vivo Data 5.4.2 Side Effects of Fermentation of Inulin-Type Fructans 5.5 Discussion and Conclusion References Chapter 6 The Digestive Functions: Inulin and Oligofructose as Dietary Fiber 6.1 Dietary Fiber: A Concept in Human Nutrition 6.1.1 History 6.1.2 Definition of Dietary Fiber 6.1.3 The Dietary Fiber Components 6.1.4 Analysis of Dietary Fiber 6.1.5 Physicochemical Properties of Dietary Fiber 6.1.6 Physiological Properties of Dietary Fiber: Their Effects on Upper Gastrointestinal Tract 6.1.6.1 Resistance to Digestion 6.1.6.2 Effects on Upper Gastrointestinal Functions 6.1.7 Physiological Properties of Dietary Fiber: Their Effects on the Large Bowel 6.1.7.1 Colonic Fermentation 6.1.7.2 Bowel Habit 6.2 Inulin and Oligofructose as Dietary Fiber 6.2.1 Inulin and Oligofructose, and the Concept of Dietary Fiber 6.2.2 Inulin and Oligofructose, and the Analysis of Dietary Fiber 6.2.3 Inulin and Oligofructose, and the Physicochemical Properties of Dietary Fiber 6.2.4 Inulin and Oligofructose, and the Effects of Dietary Fiber on the Gastrointestinal Tract 6.2.4.1 Resistance to Digestion 6.2.4.2 Inulin and Oligofructose, and Upper Gastrointestinal Functions 6.2.4.3 Colonic Fermentation of Inulin and Oligofructose 6.2.4.4 Inulin and Oligofructose, and Lower Gastrointestinal Functions 6.2.4.5 Effects of Inulin and Oligofructose on Bowel Habit 6.2.5 Conclusion References Chapter 7 Inulin and Oligofructose as Low-Calorie Carbohydrates 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Methodologies to Assess Energy Value of Inulin-Type Fructans 7.3 Assessment of Energy Value of Inulin and Oligofructose: Results and Discussion 7.3.1 Stoichiometry of Metabolism by Bifidobacteria 7.3.2 Stoichiometry of Fermentation by Intestinal Microflora 7.3.3 Efficiency of Microbial Biomass Production 7.3.4 ATP Yield of the Metabolism of the Fermentation End Products by the Host 7.3.4.1 Absorption and Excretion of SCFAs and Lactate 7.3.4.2 Cellular Metabolism of SCFAs and Lactate and ATP Yield 7.4 Inulin and Oligofructose as Low-Calorie Carbohydrates: Conclusion References Chapter 8 Inulin-Type Fructans and Gastrointestinal Functions: Conclusions and Perspectives References Chapter 9 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Modulation of the Intestinal Microflora: The Prebiotic Effect 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Concept of Colonic Health 9.1.2 Concept of Balanced Colonic Microflora 9.2 Prebiotics: Definition and Requirements for Scientific Substantiation 9.3 Methodologies for the Study of the Composition of the Gut Microflora 9.3.1 Culture on Selective Media 9.3.2 Molecular Methodologies 9.3.2.1 Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization 9.3.2.2 Polymerase Chain Reaction 9.3.2.3 Direct Community Analysis 9.3.2.4 Denaturing or Temperature-Gradient Gel Electrophoresis 9.4 Inulin-Type Fructans Classify as Prebiotic: Scientific Substantiation 9.4.1 Experimental Evidence 9.4.1.1 In Vitro Data 9.4.1.2 In Vivo Data 9.4.2 Human Data 9.5 Inulin-Type Fructans as Prebiotics: Discussion and Perspectives 9.5.1 Qualitative Aspects of the Prebiotic Effect 9.5.2 Quantitative Aspects: The Prebiotic Index 9.5.3 Conclusions and Perspectives References Chapter 10 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Intestinal Absorption of Minerals 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Physiology of Calcium 10.2.1 Calcium Metabolism 10.2.2 Calcium Intake and Bone Health 10.2.3 Calcium Requirements and Recommendations 10.2.4 Improving Calcium Intakes and Calcium Bioavailability in the Population 10.3 The Physiology of Magnesium 10.3.1 Magnesium Metabolism 10.3.2 Magnesium Requirements and Recommendations 10.4 Methodologies for the Study of Mineral Absorption and Bone Health 10.4.1 Methodologies for the Study of Ca and Mg Absorption 10.4.1.1 Metabolic Balance Studies 10.4.1.2 Tracer Studies 10.4.1.3 Kinetics of Urinary Ca Excretion 10.4.2 Methodologies for the Study of Bone Health 10.4.2.1 Biochemical Markers of Bone Turnover 10.4.2.2 Bone Mineral Mass and Density 10.5 Inulin-Type Fructans: Mineral Absorption and Bone Health 10.5.1 Inulin-Type Fructans and Ca Absorption 10.5.1.1 In Vitro Data 10.5.1.2 Animal Data 10.5.1.3 Human Data 10.5.2 Inulin-Type Fructans and Mg Absorption 10.5.2.1 Animal Data 10.5.2.2 Human Data 10.5.3 Inulin-Type Fructans and Bone Health 10.5.3.1 Bone Structure and Bone Quality 10.5.3.2 Bone Mineralization 10.5.3.3 Bone Density 10.5.3.4 Bone Turnover 10.6 Inulin-Type Fructans and Gastrointestinal Absorption of Iron, Copper, Zinc, and Phosphate 10.6.1 Inulin-Type Fructans and Absorption of Iron 10.6.1.1 Animal Data 10.6.1.2 Human Data 10.6.2 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Absorption of Copper and Zinc 10.6.2.1 Animal Data 10.6.2.2 Human Data 10.6.3 Inulin-Type Fructans and Phosphate Absorption 10.7 Inulin-Type Fructans — Mineral Absorption and Bone Health: Discussion, Perspectives, and Conclusion 10.7.1 Protocols and Methodologies 10.7.2 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Absorption of Minerals 10.7.3 Mechanisms 10.7.4 Conclusion References Chapter 11 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Homeostasis of Lipids 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biochemistry of Lipid Metabolism 11.2.1 Metabolism of Triacylglycerols 11.2.2 Metabolism of Cholesterol and Lipoproteins 11.2.3 Methodologies to Study Lipid Metabolism and Lipid Homeostasis 11.2.3.1 In Vivo Experiments 11.2.3.2 Ex Vivo Protocols 11.3 Inulin-Type Fructans and Lipid Homeostasis 11.3.1 Animal Data 11.3.1.1 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Parameters in Healthy Experimental Animals Fed a Standard Diet 11.3.1.2 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Parameters in Healthy Experimental Animals Fed Hyperlipidemic Diets 11.3.1.3 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Parameters in Genetically Modified Animals Prone to Develop Obesity or Hypercholesterolemia 11.3.2 Human Data 11.3.2.1 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Parameters in Normolipidemic Subjects 11.3.2.2 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Parameters in (Slightly) Hyperlipidemic Subjects 11.3.2.3 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Parameters in Noninsulin-Dependent Diabetic (NIDDM) Subjects 11.3.3 Mechanisms of the Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Lipid Homeostasis 11.4 Inulin-Type Fructans and Lipid Homeostasis: Discussion, Conclusion, and Perspectives References Chapter 12 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Defense Functions of the Body 12.1 Introduction: The Defense Functions of the Body 12.1.1 Innate Components of the Body’s Defense 12.1.2 Acquired Components of the Body’s Defense 12.2 Role of the Gastrointestinal System in the Body’s Defense 12.2.1 Gastrointestinal Mucosa and Defense Functions: Generalities 12.2.1.1 Gastrointestinal Mucosa as a Barrier 12.2.1.2 Gastrointestinal Mucosa as a Safeguard 12.2.2 Intestinal Microflora and the Gastrointestinal System in the Body’s Defense 12.2.3 The Gastrointestinal Mucosa and the Body’s Defense Functions: Specific Mechanisms 12.2.3.1 Defense Mechanisms in the Oral Cavity 12.2.3.2 Defense Mechanisms in the Stomach 12.2.3.3 Defense Mechanisms in the Intestine 12.2.4 Biomarkers of Gastrointestinal Defense Functions 12.2.4.1 Biomarkers of Barrier Functions 12.2.4.2 Biomarkers of Safeguard Functions 12.2.4.3 Indirect Measurements of Defense Functions 12.3 Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Defense Functions 12.3.1 Dietary Fiber and Immune Function 12.3.1.1 Effects of Fermentable Dietary Fibers on Immune Functions 12.3.1.2 Mechanisms of the Effects of Fermentable Fibers on Immune Functions 12.3.2 Probiotics, Immune Functions, and the Risk of Immune- Associated Diseases 12.3.2.1 Effects of Probiotics on Immune Functions 12.3.2.2 Mechanisms of the Effects of Probiotics on Immune Functions 12.3.2.3 Probiotics and Disease Risk Associated with Dysfunctional Gastrointestinal Defenses 12.4 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Gastrointestinal System’s Defense Functions 12.4.1 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Biomarkers of Gastrointestinal Barrier Functions 12.4.1.1 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Intestinal Epithelia 12.4.1.2 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Colonization Resistance and Translocation of Microorganisms 12.4.1.3 Effects on Chemical Safeguard Functions 12.4.1.4 Effects on Enzymatic Safeguard Functions 12.4.1.5 Effects on Immune Defense Functions 12.4.2 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on the Risk of Diseases Related to Dysfunction of Gastrointestinal Defense Functions 12.4.2.1 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on the Risk of Traveler’s Diarrhea 12.4.2.2 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on the Risk of Irritable Bowel Diseases (IBD) 12.4.2.3 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Risk of Neonatal Necrotizing Enterocolitis 12.4.2.4 Effects of Inulin-Type Fructans on Risk of Colon Cancer 12.5 Inulin-Type Fructans and Systemic Defense Functions 12.5.1 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Risk of Systemic Infection 12.5.2 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Risk of Chemically Induced Mammary Carcinogenesis 12.5.3 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Growth of Implanted Tumors 12.5.4 Effect of Inulin-Type Fructans on Metastasis 12.5.5 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Potentiation of Cancer Therapy 12.6 Inulin-Type Fructans and Defense Functions: Overview, Discussion, and Perspectives References Chapter 13 General Discussion, Perspectives, and Conclusions 13.1 Introduction 13.2 General Discussion 13.2.1 Inulin-Type Fructans and the Functional Food Concept 13.2.2 Inulin-Type Fructans: Health and Well-Being 13.2.3 Inulin-Type Fructans and Specific Food Applications 13.2.3.1 Inulin-Type Fructans and Infant Formulas 13.2.3.2 Inulin-Type Fructans and Feed for Domestic Animals and Pets 13.3 Conclusions and Perspectives References