Corrosion engineering handbook 2nd ed

Contents Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Metallic Corrosion ......................................... 1 1.1 Forms of Corrosion...................................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Uniform Corrosion ......................................................................... 3 1.1.1.1 Passive Film on Iron......................................................... 3 1.1.1.2 Passive Film on Nickel..................................................... 4 1.1.1.3 Passive Film on Austenitic Stainless Steel.................... 4 1.1.1.4 Passive Film on Copper ................................................... 4 1.1.1.5 Passive Film on Aluminum ............................................ 5 1.1.1.6 Passive Film on Titanium ................................................ 5 1.1.1.7 Passive Film on Tantalum ............................................... 5 1.1.1.8 Uniform Corrosion Rates................................................. 5 1.1.2 Intergranular Corrosion ................................................................. 7 1.1.3 Galvanic Corrosion ......................................................................... 8 1.1.4 Crevice Corrosion ......................................................................... 10 1.1.5 Pitting Corrosion........................................................................... 12 1.1.6 Erosion Corrosion ......................................................................... 15 1.1.7 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) ............................................... 16 1.1.8 Biological Corrosion ..................................................................... 18 1.1.8.1 Corrosion of Specific Materials..................................... 21 1.1.9 Selective Leaching......................................................................... 23 1.2 Corrosion Mechanisms ............................................................................. 24 1.3 Measuring Polarization............................................................................. 31 1.3.1 Anodic Polarization...................................................................... 34 1.4 Other Factors Affecting Corrosion .......................................................... 35 Reference .............................................................................................................. 37 Chapter 2 Atmospheric Corrosion............................................................... 39 2.1 Atmospheric Types .................................................................................... 40 2.2 Factors Affecting Atmospheric Corrosion ............................................. 41 2.2.1 Time of Wetness ............................................................................ 42 2.2.1.1 Adsorption Layers .......................................................... 43 2.2.1.2 Phase Layers .................................................................... 43 2.2.1.3 Dew ................................................................................... 43 2.2.1.4 Rain ................................................................................... 43 2.2.1.5 Fog ..................................................................................... 44 2.2.1.6 Dust ................................................................................... 44 2.2.1.7 Measurement of Time of Wetness ................................ 44 2.2.2 Composition of Surface Electrolyte ........................................... 45 2.2.2.1 Oxygen.............................................................................. 45 2.2.2.2 SOX .................................................................................... 45 2.2.2.3 NOX ................................................................................... 45 2.2.2.4 Chlorides .......................................................................... 45 2.2.2.5 CO2 .................................................................................... 46 2.2.2.6 Concentrations of Different Species ............................. 46 2.2.3 Temperature................................................................................... 46 2.2.4 Initial Exposure ............................................................................. 47 2.2.5 Sheltering........................................................................................ 47 2.2.6 Wind Velocity ................................................................................ 47 2.2.7 Nature of Corrosion Products .................................................... 47 2.2.8 Pollutants Present ......................................................................... 48 2.3 Mechanisms of Atmospheric Corrosion of Metals............................... 49 2.3.1 Damp Atmospheric Corrosion (Adsorption Layers) ..................................................................... 52 2.3.2 Wet Atmospheric Corrosion (Phase Layers) ............................ 54 2.3.2.1 Dew ................................................................................... 54 2.3.2.2 Rain ................................................................................... 54 2.3.2.3 Fog ..................................................................................... 55 2.3.3 Deposit of Pollutants .................................................................... 55 2.4 Corrosion Products .................................................................................... 56 2.5 Specific Atmospheric Corrodents ........................................................... 58 2.5.1 Sulfur-Containing Compounds .................................................. 59 2.5.2 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds ............................................. 61 2.5.3 Chlorine-Containing Compounds.............................................. 62 2.5.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2).................................................................. 62 2.5.5 Oxygen (O2) ................................................................................... 62 2.5.6 Indoor Atmospheric Compounds .............................................. 63 2.6 Summary ..................................................................................................... 63 2.7 Effects on Metals Used for Outdoor Applications ............................... 63 2.7.1 Carbon Steel................................................................................... 63 2.7.2 Weathering Steels.......................................................................... 64 2.7.3 Zinc.................................................................................................. 65 2.7.4 Aluminum...................................................................................... 65 2.7.5 Copper ............................................................................................ 65 2.7.6 Nickel 200....................................................................................... 66 2.7.7 Monel Alloy 400 ............................................................................ 66 2.7.8 Inconel Alloy 600 .......................................................................... 66 Reference .............................................................................................................. 66 Chapter 3 Corrosion of Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels ........................... 67 3.1 Corrosion Data ........................................................................................... 67 3.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking ........................................................................ 78 3.3 Sulfide Stress Cracking ............................................................................. 78 3.4 Pitting........................................................................................................... 79 3.5 Hydrogen Damage .................................................................................... 79 3.5.1 Hydrogen Blistering ..................................................................... 80 3.5.2 Hydrogen Embrittlement ............................................................ 80 3.5.3 Decarburization............................................................................. 80 3.5.4 Hydrogen Attack .......................................................................... 80 3.6 Corrosion Fatigue ...................................................................................... 81 3.7 Microbiologically Influenced Corrosion ................................................ 81 Reference .............................................................................................................. 82 Chapter 4 Corrosion of Cast Iron and Cast Steel..................................... 83 4.1 Cast Irons .................................................................................................... 86 4.1.1 Gray Iron ........................................................................................ 86 4.1.2 Compacted Graphite Iron............................................................ 87 4.1.3 Ductile (Nodular) Iron ................................................................. 87 4.1.4 White Iron ...................................................................................... 88 4.1.5 Malleable Iron................................................................................ 88 4.2 High Alloy Cast Irons ............................................................................... 88 4.2.1 Austenitic Gray Cast Irons .......................................................... 88 4.2.2 Austenitic Ductile Cast Irons ...................................................... 89 4.2.3 High-Silicon Cast Irons ................................................................ 89 4.3 Carbon and Low-Alloy Carbon Steels ................................................... 96 References ............................................................................................................ 97 Chapter 5 Introduction to Stainless Steel.................................................. 99 5.1 Stainless Steel Classification..................................................................... 99 5.1.1 Ferritic Family ............................................................................. 100 5.1.2 Martensitic Family ...................................................................... 102 5.1.3 Austenitic Family........................................................................ 102 5.1.4 Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels............................... 103 5.1.5 Superferritic Stainless Steels ..................................................... 104 5.1.6 Duplex Stainless Steels............................................................... 104 5.1.7 Superaustenitic Stainless Steels ................................................ 105 5.2 Passivation ................................................................................................ 105 5.3 Sanitizing................................................................................................... 106 5.4 Preparing for Service............................................................................... 106 5.4.1 Iron Contamination .................................................................... 106 5.4.2 Organic Contamination.............................................................. 107 5.4.3 Welding Contamination............................................................. 107 Chapter 6 Corrosion of Stainless Steels................................................... 109 6.1 Pitting......................................................................................................... 111 6.2 Crevice Corrosion .................................................................................... 112 6.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking ...................................................................... 112 6.4 Intergranular Corrosion .......................................................................... 114 6.5 High-Temperature Corrosion................................................................. 116 6.6 Corrosion Fatigue .................................................................................... 122 6.7 Uniform Corrosion .................................................................................. 122 Chapter 7 Ferritic Stainless Steel Family................................................. 123 7.1 Type 405 (S40500)..................................................................................... 126 7.2 Type 409 (S40900)..................................................................................... 127 7.3 Type 430 (S43000)..................................................................................... 127 7.4 Type 439L (S43035) .................................................................................. 128 7.5 Type 444 (S44400)..................................................................................... 128 7.6 Type 446 (S44600)..................................................................................... 132 Reference ............................................................................................................ 132 Chapter 8 Superferritic Stainless Steel Family ...................................... 133 8.1 Type XM-27 (S44627) ............................................................................... 134 8.2 Alloy S44660 (Sea-Cure) ......................................................................... 134 8.3 Alloy S44735 (29-4C) ............................................................................... 136 8.4 Alloy S44800 (29-4-2) ............................................................................... 136 8.5 Alloy S44700 (29-4) .................................................................................. 137 Reference ............................................................................................................ 137 Chapter 9 Martensitic Stainless Steel Family ......................................... 139 9.1 Type 410 (S41000)..................................................................................... 139 9.2 Type 414 (S41400)..................................................................................... 144 9.3 Type 416 (S41600)..................................................................................... 144 9.4 Type 420 (S42000)..................................................................................... 145 9.5 Type 422 (S42200)..................................................................................... 146 9.6 Type 431 (S43100)..................................................................................... 147 9.7 Type 440A (S44002).................................................................................. 147 9.8 Type 440B (S44003) .................................................................................. 148 9.9 Type 440C (S44004) .................................................................................. 148 9.10 Alloy 440-XH ............................................................................................ 149 9.11 13Cr-4N (F6NM) ...................................................................................... 149 Reference ............................................................................................................ 149 Chapter 10 Austenitic Stainless Steel Family ......................................... 151 10.1 Type 201 (S20100)................................................................................... 155 10.2 Type 202 (S20200)................................................................................... 156 10.3 Type 22-13-5 (S20910) ............................................................................ 156 10.4 Type 216L (S21603) ................................................................................ 157 10.5 Type 301 (S30100)................................................................................... 158 10.6 Type 302 (S30200)................................................................................... 158 10.7 Type 303 (S30300)................................................................................... 158 10.8 Type 304 (S30400)................................................................................... 158 10.9 Type 305 (S30500)................................................................................... 159 10.10 Type 308 (S30800)................................................................................... 159 10.11 Type 309 (S30900) ................................................................................... 159 10.12 Type 310 (S31000)................................................................................... 164 10.13 Type 316 (S31600)................................................................................... 164 10.14 Type 317 (S31700)................................................................................... 169 10.15 Type 321 (S32100)................................................................................... 172 10.16 Type 329 (S32900)................................................................................... 174 10.17 Type 347 (S34700)................................................................................... 175 10.18 Type 348 (S34800)................................................................................... 175 Reference ............................................................................................................ 176 Chapter 11 Superaustenitic Family of Stainless Steel ......................... 177 11.1 Alloy 20Cb3 (N08020) ........................................................................... 180 11.2 Alloy 20Mo-4 (N08024) ......................................................................... 185 11.3 Alloy 20Mo-6 (N08026) ......................................................................... 185 11.4 Alloy 904L (N08904) .............................................................................. 186 11.5 Alloy 800 (N08800) ................................................................................ 186 11.6 Alloy 825 (N08825) ................................................................................ 187 11.7 Type 330 (N08330).................................................................................. 190 11.8 Al-6XN (N08367) .................................................................................... 191 11.9 Alloy 254SMo (S31254).......................................................................... 192 11.10 Alloy 25-6Mo (N08926)......................................................................... 193 11.11 Alloy 31 (N08031) .................................................................................. 194 11.12 Alloy 654SMo (S32654) ......................................................................... 194 11.13 Inconel Alloy 686 (N06686) .................................................................. 195 Reference ............................................................................................................ 195 Chapter 12 Duplex Stainless Steel Family .............................................. 197 12.1 Alloy 2205 (S31803)................................................................................ 200 12.2 7-MoPlus (S32950).................................................................................. 201 12.3 Zeron 100 (S32760)................................................................................. 202 12.4 Ferralium 255 (S32550).......................................................................... 203 Chapter 13 Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steel Family ............... 205 13.1 Alloy PH13-8Mo (S13800) .................................................................... 207 13.2 Alloy 15-5PH (S15500) .......................................................................... 207 13.3 Alloy 17-4PH (S17400) .......................................................................... 208 13.4 Alloy 17-7PH (S17700) .......................................................................... 209 13.5 Alloy 350 (S35000).................................................................................. 212 13.6 Alloy 355 (S35500).................................................................................. 212 13.7 Custom 450 (S45000) ............................................................................. 213 13.8 Custom 455 (S45500) ............................................................................. 214 13.9 Alloy 718 (N07718) ................................................................................ 214 13.10 Alloy A286 (S66286) .............................................................................. 215 13.11 Alloy X-750 (N07750) ............................................................................ 215 13.12 Pyromet Alloy 31................................................................................... 216 13.13 Pyromet Alloy CTX-1............................................................................ 217 13.14 Pyromet Alloy CTX-3............................................................................ 218 13.15 Pyromet Alloy CTX-909........................................................................ 218 13.16 Pyromet Alloy V-57 ............................................................................... 219 13.17 Thermospan Alloy................................................................................. 220 References .......................................................................................................... 220 Chapter 14 Cast Stainless Steel Alloys .................................................... 221 14.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels................................................................... 224 14.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels .......................................................................... 225 14.3 Austenitic Stainless Steels .................................................................... 226 14.4 Superaustenitic Stainless Steels ........................................................... 229 14.5 Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steels ........................................... 231 14.6 Duplex Stainless Steels.......................................................................... 231 References .......................................................................................................... 233 Chapter 15 Nickel and High-Nickel Alloys ............................................ 235 15.1 Nickel 200 and Nickel 201.................................................................... 237 15.2 Monel Alloy 400 (N04400).................................................................... 243 15.3 Alloy B-2.................................................................................................. 245 15.4 Alloy 625 (N06625) ................................................................................ 252 15.5 Custom Age 625 Plus (N07716) ........................................................... 257 15.6 Alloy C-276 (N10276) ............................................................................ 262 15.7 Alloy C-4 (N06455) ................................................................................ 263 15.8 Alloy C-22 (N06022) .............................................................................. 264 15.9 Hastelloy Alloy C-2000 ......................................................................... 265 15.10 Alloy X (N06002).................................................................................... 267 15.11 Alloy 600 (N06600) ................................................................................ 268 15.12 Alloy G (N06007) and Alloy G-3 (N06985) ....................................... 269 15.13 Alloy G-30 (N06030) .............................................................................. 270 15.14 Alloy H-9M ............................................................................................. 272 15.15 Alloys for High-Temperature Corrosion............................................ 272 15.15.1 Hastelloy Alloy S................................................................... 273 15.15.2 Haynes Alloy 556 (R30556).................................................. 273 15.15.3 Alloy 214 ................................................................................. 274 15.15.4 Alloy 230 (N06230)................................................................ 275 15.15.5 Alloy RA333 (N06333) .......................................................... 276 15.15.6 Alloy 102 (N06102)................................................................ 277 Reference ............................................................................................................ 277 Chapter 16 Cast Nickel and Nickel-Based Alloys ................................. 279 16.1 Commercially Pure Nickel ................................................................... 279 16.2 Nickel–Copper........................................................................................ 279 16.3 Nickel–Chromium ................................................................................. 281 16.4 Nickel–Chromium–Molybdenum ....................................................... 281 16.5 Other Nickel-Based Alloys ................................................................... 282 References .......................................................................................................... 282 Chapter 17 Comparative Corrosion Resistance of Stainless Steel and High-Nickel Alloys ............................................... 283 Chapter 18 Copper and Copper Alloys .................................................... 469 18.1 Coppers ................................................................................................... 472 18.2 High-Copper Alloys .............................................................................. 475 18.3 Copper–Zinc Alloys (Brasses).............................................................. 475 18.4 Copper–Tin Alloys................................................................................. 483 18.5 Copper–Aluminum Alloys................................................................... 483 18.6 Copper–Nickel Alloys ........................................................................... 485 18.7 Copper–Beryllium Alloys ..................................................................... 488 18.8 Cast Copper Alloys ............................................................................... 488 18.8.1 Corrosion Resistance............................................................... 488 References .......................................................................................................... 490 Chapter 19 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys....................................... 491 19.1 Classifications and Designations......................................................... 492 19.2 Temper Designations............................................................................. 493 19.3 Strain-Hardened Subdivisions............................................................. 494 19.3.1 H1X—Strain-Hardened Only ................................................ 494 19.3.2 H2X—Strain-Hardened and Partially Annealed................ 494 19.3.3 H3X—Strain-Hardened and Stabilized................................ 494 19.4 Heat-Treated Subdivisions ................................................................... 494 19.5 Chemical Composition.......................................................................... 495 19.6 General Corrosion Resistance .............................................................. 499 19.7 Pitting Corrosion.................................................................................... 500 19.8 Intergranular Corrosion ........................................................................ 506 19.8.1 Mechanism of Intergranular Corrosion in 2XXX Alloys ........................................................................ 506 19.8.2 Mechanism of Intergranular Corrosion in 7XXX Alloys ........................................................................ 508 19.9 Exfoliation Corrosion ............................................................................ 509 19.10 Stress Corrosion Cracking .................................................................... 509 19.11 Filiform Corrosion.................................................................................. 510 19.12 Crevice Corrosion .................................................................................. 510 19.13 Poultice Corrosion ................................................................................. 511 19.14 Galvanic Relations ................................................................................. 511 19.15 Reduction of Ions of Other Metals by Aluminum ........................... 512 19.16 Weathering .............................................................................................. 514 19.17 Waters (General)..................................................................................... 514 19.18 Relative Resistance of Aluminum and Alloys .................................. 514 19.19 Atmospheric Weathering ...................................................................... 515 19.19.1 Seacoast Atmosphere............................................................ 515 19.19.2 Urban or Industrial Atmospheres ...................................... 516 19.19.3 Rural Atmosphere ................................................................. 517 19.19.4 Indoor Atmosphere............................................................... 517 19.20 Waters (Specific) .................................................................................... 518 19.20.1 Freshwaters ............................................................................ 518 19.20.2 Seawater ................................................................................. 519 19.20.3 Piping Applications.............................................................. 519 19.21 Alclad Products ..................................................................................... 520 19.22 Cast Aluminum ..................................................................................... 520 References .......................................................................................................... 522 Chapter 20 Titanium..................................................................................... 525 20.1 Alloys ....................................................................................................... 526 20.2 Types of Corrosion................................................................................. 528 20.2.1 General Corrosion ................................................................... 529 20.2.2 Galvanic Corrosion ................................................................. 529 20.2.3 Hydrogen Embrittlement ....................................................... 529 20.2.4 Crevice Corrosion.................................................................... 534 20.2.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking ..................................................... 536 20.3 Corrosion Resistance ............................................................................. 536 References .......................................................................................................... 538 Chapter 21 Tantalum .................................................................................... 539 21.1 The Oxide Film—A Protective Barrier ............................................... 540 21.2 Effect of Specific Corrosive Agents ..................................................... 542 21.2.1 Water ......................................................................................... 542 21.2.2 Acids.......................................................................................... 542 21.2.2.1 Sulfuric Acid ............................................................ 545 21.2.2.2 Phosphoric Acid ......................................................