Carbonaceous aerosol

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................ix 1. Introduction ..........................................................................................................1 2. Methods of Observation of Carbonaceous Aerosol ...........................................7 2.1 Sampling of Carbonaceous Aerosol ...............................................................7 2.1.1 Filter Sampling ....................................................................................8 2.1.2 Impactor Sampling ............................................................................21 2.2 Methods for Determination of Main Carbonaceous Aerosol Components ....................................................................................22 2.2.1 Methods for BC Determination .........................................................23 2.2.2 Methods for EC Determination .........................................................31 2.2.3 Thermo-optical Methods for OC/EC analysis ...................................35 2.2.4 Intercomparison of Various Methods ................................................42 3. Major Carbonaceous Particle Types and their Sources .................................45 3.1 Soot—Black Carbon (BC), Elemental Carbon (EC), Graphitic Carbon .......45 3.1.1 Definitions .........................................................................................45 3.1.2 History of Soot Pollution ...................................................................48 3.1.3 Properties and Chemical Composition of EC/BC/Soot .....................49 3.1.4 Emission Sources of EC/BC/Soot .....................................................55 3.1.5 Atmospheric Observations of BC/Soot .............................................58 3.1.6 Global Models of BC ........................................................................63 3.2 Primary Organic Aerosol ..............................................................................69 3.2.1 Natural Primary Aerosol Sources.......................................................70 3.2.2 Anthropogenic Primary Aerosol Sources ..........................................74 3.3 Secondary Organic Aerosol (SOA) ..............................................................83 3.3.1 Emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) relevant to Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation ...........................84 3.3.2 Gas-phase Chemical Reactions Leading to Condensable Species .....89 3.3.3 Gas-to-particle Partitioning of Reaction Products ...........................110 3.3.4 Atmospheric Observations of Secondary Organic Aerosol .............129 3.3.5 Modeling of SOA Formation ..........................................................131 3.3.6 Secondary Aerosol Formation in Heterogeneous and Multiphase Processes ......................................................................141 4. Organic Chemistry of Aerosol ........................................................................149 4.1 Chemical Properties of Bulk Organic Aerosol ...........................................151 4.1.1 OC Mass Concentrations .................................................................151 4.1.2 Global Modeling of OC Concentration Distributions .....................155 vi 4.1.3 Size Distribution of Organic Aerosol ..............................................159 4.1.4 Organic Aerosol in Mass Closure Studies .......................................161 4.1.5 State of Mixing of Organic Aerosol as Inferred from Individual Particle Analyses ............................................................166 4.1.6 Bulk Chemical Characterization of OC ...........................................168 4.1.7 Bulk OC/BC Source Apportionment ...............................................180 4.2 Major Compound Classes and Atmospheric Tracer Compounds ...............184 4.2.1 Major Classes of Organic Tracers ...................................................184 4.2.2 Source-specific Organic Tracer Compounds ...................................195 4.3 Chemistry of Water-Soluble Organic Compounds (WSOC) ......................211 4.3.1 Water-soluble Organic Compounds ................................................211 4.3.2 Scavenging Efficiency for Organic Species ....................................217 4.3.3 Organic Species in Cloud/fog Water and Precipitation ...................218 5. Properties of Carbonaceous Aerosol and their Role in the Global Atmosphere .......................................................................................................221 5.1 Optical Properties of Carbonaceous Particles and their Role in Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere …..……………………………………………221 5.1.1 Optical Properties of Individual Carbonaceous Aerosol Components .......................................................................222 5.1.2 Observations Regarding the Optical Effects of Carbonaceous Aerosol .....................................................................236 5.1.3 Role of Carbonaceous Aerosol in Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere ......................................................................................242 5.2 Hygroscopic Properties of Carbonaceous Particles and their Atmospheric Implications ..................................................................256 5.2.1 Hygroscopic Growth Attributed to Carbonaceous Aerosol .............258 5.2.2 Cloud Condensation Nucleus (CCN) Activity of Carbonaceous Aerosol .....................................................................268 5.2.3 Ice-nucleating (IN) Activity of Carbonaceous Aerosol ...................288 5.2.4 Contribution of Carbonaceous Aerosol to Aerosol Indirect Forcing 289 5.3 Heterogeneous Reactions on Carbonaceous Aerosol in the Atmosphere ...295 5.3.1 Properties of Carbonaceous Particles Relevant to Heterogeneous Chemistry ...............................................................295 5.3.2 Heterogeneous Reactions in the Stratosphere on Carbonaceous Aerosol .....................................................................296 5.3.3 Heterogeneous Reactions in the Troposphere on Carbonaceous Aerosol .....................................................................299 References ..........................................................................................................301 Copyright Acknowledgements ...............................................................................333 Index ..........................................................................................................343 List of Abbreviations ..............................................................................................349