Fire Properties of Polymer Composite Materials

Introduction 1.1 Background 1 1.2 Fire reaction and fire resistance of composites 3 1.3 Composites and fire 5 1.4 Case studies of composites in fire 9 1.5 Concluding remarks 17 References 18 2 Thermal Decomposition of Composites in Fire 2.1 Introduction 19 2.2 Thermal decomposition mechanisms of organic polymers 20 2.3 Rate processes and characterisation of decomposition 23 2.4 Polymers and their decomposition processes 25 2.5 Fire damage to composites 47 2.6 Concluding remarks 55 References 56 3 Fire Reaction Properties of Composites 3.1 Introduction 59 3.2 Time-to-ignition 59 3.3 Heat release rate 72 3.4 Extinction flammability index & thermal stability index 79 3.5 Mass loss 81 3.6 Smoke 84 3.7 Smoke toxicity 88 3.8 Limiting oxygen index 90 3.9 Surface spread of flame 94 3.10 Fire resistance 96 References 98 4 Fire Modelling of Composites 4.1 Introduction 103 4.2 Thermal exposure 104 4.3 Modelling material fire dynamics 115 4.4 Structural modelling of fire response 122 References 131 v vi Fire Properties of Polymer Composite Materials 5 Modelling the Thermal Response of Composites in Fire 5.1 Introduction 133 5.2 Response of composites to fire 134 5.3 Modelling heat conduction in composites 138 5.4 Modelling the fire response of composites 141 5.5 Modelling the thermal properties of composites 152 5.6 Concluding remarks 157 References 158 6 Structural Properties of Composites in Fire 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Laminate properties 164 6.3 Measurement of elastic constants 6.4 Mechanical properties as a function of temperature 174 6.5 Modelling of properties 180 6.6 Fire resistance of laminates under load 191 6.7 Modelling of fire resistance of laminates under load 198 6.8 Concluding remarks 211 References 211 7 Post-Fire Properties of Composites 7.1 Introduction 215 7.2 Post-fire properties of laminates 216 7.3 Modelling the post-fire properties of laminates 226 7.4 Post-fire properties of sandwich composites 232 7.5 Post-fire properties of fire protected composites 233 7.6 Concluding remarks 235 References 235 8 Flame Retardant Composites 8.1 Introduction 237 8.2 The combustion cycle 238 8.3 Flame retardants for composites 240 8.4 Flame retardant fillers for composite 241 8.5 Flame retardant organic polymers for composites 256 8.6 Flame retardant inorganic polymers for composites 270 8.7 Flame retardant fibres for composites 272 8.8 Fire protective surface coatings 273 References 284 9 Fire Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites 9.1 Introduction 287 9.2 Characterization of nanocomposite formation 291 9.3 Evaluation of fire retardancy 293 9.4 Clay modifications 294 171 Table of Contents vii 9.5 Examples of fire retardancy of polymer nanocomposites 296 9.6 Mechanisms of fire retardancy in nanocomposites 306 9.7 Future trends in fire retardancy of nanocomposites 307 References 308 10 Fire Safety Regulations 10.1 Introduction 313 10.2 Fire safety regulations for rail 314 10.3 Fire safety regulations for automobiles, buses and trucks 316 10.4 Fire safety regulations for civil infrastructure 316 10.5 Fire safety regulations for civilian aircraft 316 10.6 Fire safety regulations for ships and submarines 318 References 323 11 Fire Tests for Composites 11.1 Introduction 325 11.2 Scale of fire reaction tests 327 11.3 Cone calorimeter 328 11.4 Atmosphere controlled cone calorimeter 335 11.5 Intermediate-scale cone calorimeter 336 11.6 Ohio State University calorimeter 337 11.7 Limiting oxygen index test 339 11.8 Flame spread tests 340 11.9 Smoke density tests 342 11.10 Furnace tests 344 11.11 347 11.12 Single burning item test 348 11.13 Room fire tests 349 11.14 Structural integrity in fire tests 352 11.15 Aircraft fire tests 353 11.16 Concluding remarks 354 References 355 12 Health Hazards of Composites in Fire 12.1 Introduction 359 12.2 Smoke toxicity test methods 360 12.3 Health hazards of combustion gases 364 12.4 N-gas model for smoke toxic potency 371 12.5 Health hazards of fibres 372 12.6 Personal protective wear against burning composite materials 380 12.7 Concluding remarks 380 References 381 Subject Index 385