The nutritional trace metals

225 Berzelius, Jo¨ns Jakob, 1, 35, 135 bioavailability, metals in soils, of, 18–19 metals in food, of, 22 bioinorganic chemistry, 2 blind staggers, 135 boron, 214–18 chemical and physical properties, 214 diets, in, 215 essentiality, 217 food and beverages, in, 215–16 uses, 215 boron absorption and metabolism, 216 boron acceptable daily intake (ADI), 217–18 boron supplements, 216 Brazil nuts, 141–42 Bread and Flour Regulations (UK), 61 breakfast cereals, 21, 122 cadmium, 226 caeruloplasmin, 120, 126 Camellia sinensis, 19, 194 catalase, 40 chaperones, 125 chlorosis, 35 chromatin scaffold proteins, 121 chromium, 180–92 absorption and metabolism, 183–85 adventitious, 182 athletic performance, and, 185 canned food, in, 183 chemistry, 180–81 diets, in, 183 distribution, production and uses, 181 drinking water, in, 182 food and beverages, in, 181–83 glucose tolerance, and, 184 transport in blood, 183–84 chromium-binding substance (LMWCr), 184–85 chromium-dinicotinic acid-glutathione complex, 188 chromium-enriched yeast, 182 chromium essentiality, 184 chromium picolinate, 185, 188 chromium requirements, 186–88 chromium status, 186 chromium supplements, 188 chromodulin, 184–85 cobalt, 220–23 absorption and metabolism, 222–23 chemical and physical properties, 221 food and beverages, in, 221–22 234 production and uses, 221 recommended intake, 223 safe intake, 223 copper, 118–34 biology, 119–21 body, in, 125–26 chemistry, 118–19 diets, in, 121–22, 130 foods, in, 121–22 plasma, in, 126 copper absorption, 124 carbohydrates, and, 124 fibre, and, 124 inhibitors of, 124 milk, from, 124 molybdenum, effects on, 124 copper deficiency, 127–28 heart disease, relation to, 128 copper enzymes, 126–27 copper proteins, 119–21 copper requirements, 127–30 assessment, 126–27 copper ESADDI, 128 copper status, 126–27, immunity, relation to, 127 copper supplementation, 127 copper toxicity, 130 copper transport, 124–25 copper transporters (Ctr), 124–25 copper/zinc superoxide dismutase, 120–21 cot death see Sudden Infant Death Syndrome cytochromes, 39–40 cytochromes a=a3, 39 cytochrome b, 39 cytochrome c, 39 cytochrome P-450, 7 cytochrome oxidase, 40 cytochrome-c oxidase, 119–20 dietary intake estimation methods, 23–4 duplicate diet, 23–24 food frequency questionnaires (FFQ), 23 hypothetical diets, 23 per capita, 23 total diet studies (TDS), 23 weighed food diaries (WFD), 23 divalent metal transporters (DMT1, DCT-1, Nramp2), 90 element(s) chemical forms in foods, 15 determination of levels in food, 16–17 essential, 9 estimating dietary intakes, 22–24 food and diets, in, 11–22 macro, 7 major, 9 non-essential, 9 trace, 7 transition, 4 Estimated Safe and Adequate Daily Dietary Intakes (ESADDI), 25–26 Factor 3, 135 ferritin, 41 ferroxidases, 120 fortification of food, 20–21 glucose tolerance factor (GTF), 184, 188 glutathione peroxidase (GPX), 150–51 goitre, 158 Groote Eylandt, 194 haemochromatosis, 54 haemocyanin, 121 haemoglobin, 37–38 haemoglobin measurement, 52 haemosiderin, 42 haemosiderosis, 54 hepcidin, 47 iatrogenic diseases, 157 immunity, 56–57 iodine, 158 iodothyronine deiodinase (ID), 151 iron, 35–79 absorption, 42–48 adventitious, 63 bioavailability of, 61–62 cancer, relation to, 58 chemistry, 36–37 coronary heart disease (CHD), relation to, 58–59 dietary intakes in different countries, 63–65 enhancers of absorption, 44–45 food and diet, in, 59–65 fortification of food, 60–63, 67–69 human body, in, 37 immunity, relation to, 56–57 Index 235 iron (cont’d) infection, relation to, 57–58 inhibitors of absorption, 43–44 recommended intakes, 65–66 regulation of absorption, 47–48 iron-containing proteins, 37–42 iron deficiency (ID), 52, 66–70 strategies to combat, 66–70 iron deficiency anaemia (IDA), 52–53 iron export from cells, 46–47 iron losses, 49 iron overload, 54–55 iron response proteins, 47–48 iron status, 49–52 iron stores, 50–51 iron–sulphur proteins, 40 iron supplements, 69–70 iron transport in plasma, 48–49 iron transporting proteins, 41–42 iron turnover, 49 iron uptake by mucosal cells, 45–46 Kashin–Beck disease, 136, 156–57 Keshan disease, 136, 155–56 Kesterton reservoir, 140 kwashiorkhor, 56 Lactobacilli, 7 lactoferrin, 41 lead, 226 Lewis acids, 6 lithium, 226 malaria, 58 manganese, 193–201 chemical and physical properties, 193–94 dietary intake, 194 food and beverages, in, 194 metabolic functions, 195–96 production and uses, 193 tea, in, 194 manganese absorption and metabolism, 194–97 manganese deficiency, 196 manganese-dependent enzymes, 197–99 manganese madness, 193 manganese requirements, 197–99 manganese status, 199 manganese-superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), 198 manganese toxicity, 196–97 Marmite, 221 Menke’s disease, 125, 128 metal(s) adventitious in food, 20 availability in soil, 18–19 food, in, 11–19 human tissue, in, 8 non-plant sources in food, 19–22 representative, 4 soil, in, 17–19 transition, 4 metalloenzymes, 3 metalloids, 3 metallothionein, 97–98, 103 molybdenum, 124, 202–10 chemical and physical properties, 202–3 dietary intake, 203 distribution and production, 202 food and beverages, in, 203–4 molybdenum absorption and metabolism, 204–6 molybdopterin cofactor, 204–5 molybdenum deficiency, 205 molybdenum enzymes, 204–5 molybdenum requirements, 206–7 molybdenum supplements, 206 molybdenum toxicity, 205–6 mucosal block of iron absorption, 46 myoglobin, 38–39 National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), 163 National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES), 58–59 nickel, 211–14 chemical and physical properties, 211–12 diets, in, 21 food and beverages, in, 212–13 nickel absorption and metabolism, 213–14 nickel dietary supplement, 212 nickel enzymes, 213 nickel essentiality, 213–14 nickel requirements, 214 Nutrient Reference Values Australia and New Zealand, 29 Parkinson’s disease, 162, 197 passivation treatment, 183 peptidylglycine a-amidating monooxygenase (PAM), 127 Periodic Table of the Elements, 3, 5 236 Index peroxidase, 40 phenylketonuria (PKU), 157 pre-eclampsia, 158 protoporphyrin IX (Fe-PP-IX), 37–38, 48 reactive oxygen species (ROS), 55–56 ready-to-eat (RTE) see breakfast cereals Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA), 24–30 Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNI), 27–29 Salmonella typhimurium, 57 scandium, 226 Schroeder, Henry, 10 selenium, 14, 135–79 biological roles, 149–54 production and uses, 137–38 selenium chemistry, 136–37 selenium compounds, 136 sources and distribution, 138–40, 141–42 water, in, 139–40 selenium absorption from food, 145–46 selenium blood levels, 147–49 selenium deficiency, 155–60 TPN-induced, 157 selenium dietary intakes, 142–45 Finland, in, 144–45 New Zealand, in, 144–45 UK, in, 144 selenium distribution in body, 146–49 selenium excretion, 146 selenium, foods and beverages, in, 140–42 Brazil nuts, in, 141–42 variations in levels of, 140–41 selenium, health and disease, in, 154–63 brain function, and, 162 cancer, relation to, 159–60 coronary vascular disease (CVD), relation to, 159 goitre, and, 158 immune response, effects on, 161–62 other health effects, relation to, 162–63 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), and, 163 selenium–iodine relationship, 158 selenium recommended intakes, 163–65 selenium-responsive conditions in animals, 149–150 selenium supplementation, 165–66 selenium toxicity, 154–55 selenocysteine, 152–54 selenoenzymes, 149–52 selenomethionine, nutritional significance of, 146 selenoprotein P (Se-P), 152 selenoprotein W (Se-W), 152 selenoprotein synthesis, 152–54 selenosis, 135, 154–55 silicon, 224 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), 163 supplements, dietary, 21–22 over-the-counter (OTC), 21 tannin, 44 tea see Camellia sinensis teart disease, 124, 202 thioredoxin reductase (TR), 151–52 thymulin, 95 titanium, 226 Torula yeast, 184 total parenteral nutrition (TPN), 82, 127, 157, 197 transferrin, 41, 48 transferrin receptors (TfRs), 48 transport ATPases, P-type, 125 tyrosinase, 121 vanadium, 218–20 absorption and metabolism, 220 chemical and physical properties, 218 dietary intake, 219 food and beverages, in, 218–19 production and uses, 218 requirements, 220 supplements, 219 toxicity, 220 Vegemite, 221 white muscle disease (WMD), 149 Wilson disease, 125 yttrium, 226 zinc, 82–117 antioxidant role, of, 97–98 biology, 84–85 bone, in, 92 Index 237 zinc (cont’d) chemistry, 82–84 chemical forms in food, 86 diet, in, 105–8 endogenous faecal (EFZ), 90–91 food, in, 86, 104–5 metabolism, 86 metallothionein, 97–98 plasma, in, 93 zinc absorption, 86–87 effects of dietary changes on, 92 gastrointestinal tract, in, 88–90 inhibitors and promotors of, 86–87 transfer across mucosal membrane, 89 zinc deficiency, 93–94 children, in, 94–95 diarrhoea, in, 94 elderly, in, 96 immunity, effects on, 95–