Air pollution and citizen awareness

Abstract . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part One Chapter I The importance of citizen awareness in controlling air pollution in metropolitan areas of Latin America: the theoretical framework . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Recognizing environmental problems as a social issue . . . . . . . 1. How do the social sciences view environmental problems? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. New concepts that explain the relationship between society and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. Change in value systems: is the environment accorded greater value? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Analysis of the tendency to become environmentally aware .............................................. 5. Some reflections on environmental awareness . . . . . . . . . . . B. Changes in the nature of environmental problems . . . . . . . . . . . 1. From industry-derived pollution to consumption-derived pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Changes in the role of the actors involved . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 13 15 27 27 29 29 34 37 40 42 46 46 46 6 ECLAC 3 . Changes in the role of science and technology in environmental policy-making ......................... C . What kind of system is possible? .......................... 1 . Constraints on the adoption of environmentally sustainable attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . Measures that could alter behaviour .................... D . What to do in future at the metropolitan level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 11 Citizens’ participation and enhancing their active involvement in air pollution control in Latin America ......................... A . Characteristics of participation ........................... B . Social participation and air pollution . Relations between civil society and the State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . Brazil: SZio Paulo metropolitan region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . Chile: Santiago metropolitan region 3 . Mexico: Mexico Valley metropolitan area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................... 4 . Other cities in Latin America .......................... C . Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Part Two Chapter 111 Methodology of the project “Enhancement of citizen awareness for the formulation of air pollution control policies in three metropolitan areas of Latin America: Mexico City Santiago and Siio Paulo” ............................................... A . The research variabfes ................................... 1 . Individual and collective behaviour .................... 2 . Social communication ................................ 3 . Citizen participation .................................. B . The interviews .......................................... 1 . The key actors ....................................... 4 . Representativeness and choice of key actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . C . Systematizing the interviews ............................. 1 . The validation workshop D . Results of the workshops 2 . Structural actors ..................................... 3 . Functional actors ..................................... ............................. ................................ 50 52 52 55 59 63 64 74 74 77 79 81 82 89 92 93 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 102 103 Air pollution and citizen awareness 7 Chapter IV Citizen awareness and air pollution: the case of Mexico City . . . . . . . 115 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 A . Socio-spatial and geographic characteristics of the Mexico Valley metropolitan area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 B . Motor vehicles and transport ............................. 119 C . Managing air quality in Mexico City and its metropolitan area . 120 1 . Environmental planning programmes and instruments, 2 . Actors involved in environmental management . . . . . . . . . . 123 D . Citizen mobilization ..................................... 126 E . Citizenship and air pollution ............................. 127 1 . Individual and collective behaviour .................... 128 2 . Changing individual actors’ behaviour towards air pollution: obstacles and incentives ..................... 132 3 . Social communication strategies ....................... 136 4 . Mechanisms for citizen participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140 F . Conclusions ............................................ 142 1995-2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Chapter V Citizen awareness and air pollution: the case of the Sao Paulo metropolitan region ........................................... 147 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 A . Air pollution in the Sao Paulo metropolitan region . . . . . . . . . . 148 1 . Urban transport in Sao Paulo .......................... 148 2 . Air quality .......................................... 151 3 . Air quality management .............................. 153 B . Theresearch ............................................ 156 1 . Structural actors ..................................... 157 2 . Functional actors ..................................... 158 3 . The three variables ................................... 158 4 . Environmental citizenship and awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 5 . Roles and responsibilities .............................. 163 6 . Social communication ................................ 167 7 . Citizen participation .................................. 168 C . Some conclusions and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170 1 . Individual and collective behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . 171 2 . Social communication ................................ 172 3 . Social participation ................................... 173 8 ECLAC Chapter VI Citizen awareness and air pollution: the case of Santiago . . . . . . . . . . 175 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 A . Air pollution in the Santiago metropolitan area ............. 176 176 2 . The city and its growth ............................... 177 3 . Urban transport ..................................... 178 4 . Pollutants and emissions .............................. 179 5 . Public policies and institutions ......................... 181 6 . Stages in pollution control management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 1 . Geographic situation and meteorological factors . . . . . . . . . B . Citizenship and .air pollution ............................. 189 1 . Public perceptions and air pollution .................... 190 2 . Differing roles: responsibility, technical capacity and power .............................................. 193 3 . Social communication: underpinning citizen awareness . . . 196 4 . Citizen participation .................................. 199 C . Conclusions ............................................ 202 Chapter VI1 Citizen awareness and air pollution in three Latin American cities: SZio Paulo. Santiago and Mexico City . Comparative analysis . . . . . . . . 207 A . Individual and collective behaviour ....................... 207 1 . Citizen awareness . Some conceptual considerations . . . . . . 208 2 . Citizen awareness and air pollution .................... 209 3 . Citizen awareness and the public institutions involved in the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 4 . Citizens’ engagement and attitudes ..................... 213 5 . Changing the behaviour of individual actors: constraints and incentives ....................................... 214 B . Social communication strategies .......................... 220 society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 communication between the State and civil society . . . . . . . 223 and civil society ...................................... 225 C . Mechanisms for citizen participation ...................... 226 1 . Strategies for communication between the State and civil 2 . Constraints on the success of strategies for 3 . Resulting degree of communication between State actors D . Conclusions and recommendations ........................ 230 Bibliography ................................................. 239 Air pollution and citizen awareness Index of Tables, Boxes and Figures Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3 Table 111.1 Table 111.2 Table 111.3 Table 111.4 Table 111.5 Table 111.6 Table 111.7 Table 111.8 Table 111.9 Table IV.l Table IV.2 Table V.l Table V.2 Table V.3 Box 1.1 Box 1.2 Box 111.1 Figure 1.1 Figure 1.2 Figure 111.1 Figure 111.2 Figure IV.l Figure VI.l Comparison of different schools of thought in environmental economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Environmental problems: categorization of zones of benefit and harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures geared to altering behaviour to protect the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Santiago: conduct of the structural actors towards air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Santiago: social communication and air pollution . . . . . . Santiago: citizen participation and air pollution . . . . . . . Sao Paulo: individual and collective behaviour towards air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sao Paulo: social communication and air pollution . . . . Sao Paulo: citizen participation and air pollution . . . . . . Mexico City: behaviour of the structural actors towards air pollution. Strengths and weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mexico City: communication between the State and civil society on air pollution. Strengths and weaknesses . Mexico City: citizen participation and air pollution. Strengths and weaknesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mexico Valley metropolitan area: economic indicators . . Modal structure of urban transport in the MVMA . . . . . Trends in motorized journeys by means of transport in the SZio Paulo metropolitan region, 1977,1987 and 1997 . . . . Journeys by main means of transport in the Sao Paulo metropolitan region, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Relative contribution of sources of air pollution in the Si30 Paulo metropolitan region, 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The concept of co-evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Main characteristics of the paradigm of human exceptionalism and the new ecological paradigm . . . . . . Guide for interviews with key actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Co-evolution: active links between society and nature . . Environmental problems: changes in the actors’ roles . . The approach of Project CCC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Key actors’ attitudes to pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MAVM: stagnation of pollutants and ozone formation . . Santiago: how pollution control management has developed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 32 49 57 103 105 106 108 109 110 111 113 114 117 120 150 151 153 34 39 100 35 48 92 96 118 187