Essentials of anatomy and physiology

CHAPTER 1 Organization and General Plan of the Body . . . . . . . . .1 Levels of Organization, 4 Metabolism and Homeostasis, 7 Terminology and General Plan of the Body, 12 CHAPTER 2 Some Basic Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 Elements, 24 Atoms, 24 Chemical Bonds, 25 Chemical Reactions, 28 Inorganic Compounds of Importance, 28 Organic Compounds of Importance, 33 CHAPTER 3 Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 Cell Structure, 48 Cellular Transport Mechanisms, 52 The Genetic Code and Protein Synthesis, 56 Cell Division, 60 Aging and Cells, 63 CHAPTER 4 Tissues and Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67 Epithelial Tissue, 70 Connective Tissue, 74 Muscle Tissue, 79 Nerve Tissue, 81 Membranes, 82 Aging and Tissues, 84 CHAPTER 5 The Integumentary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .88 The Skin, 90 Subcutaneous Tissue, 99 Aging and the Integumentary System, 101 CHAPTER 6 The Skeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .104 Functions of the Skeleton, 106 Types of Bone Tissue, 106 Classification of Bones, 106 Embryonic Growth of Bone, 108 Factors That Affect Bone Growth and Maintenance, 108 The Skeleton, 112 Joints—Articulations, 128 Aging and the Skeletal System, 128 CHAPTER 7 The Muscular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .135 Muscle Structure, 138 Muscle Tone, 140 Muscle Sense, 141 Energy Sources for Muscle Contraction, 141 Muscle Fiber—Microscopic Structure, 142 Contraction—The Sliding Filament Mechanism, 146 Responses to Exercise—Maintaining Homeostasis, 147 Aging and the Muscular System, 149 Major Muscles of the Body, 149 CHAPTER 8 The Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .163 Nervous System Divisions, 166 Nerve Tissue, 166 Types of Neurons, 170 Nerves and Nerve Tracts, 171 The Nerve Impulse, 171 The Spinal Cord, 171 The Brain, 176 Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid, 184 Cranial Nerves, 186 The Autonomic Nervous System, 187 Aging and the Nervous System, 191 CHAPTER 9 The Senses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .196 Sensory Pathway, 198 Characteristics of Sensations, 198 Cutaneous Senses, 199 Muscle Sense, 200 Sense of Taste, 200 Sense of Smell, 202 Hunger and Thirst, 202 The Eye, 202 The Ear, 210 Arterial Receptors, 216 Aging and the Senses, 216 CHAPTER 10 The Endocrine System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .221 Chemistry of Hormones, 225 Regulation of Hormone Secretion, 225 The Pituitary Gland, 225 Thyroid Gland, 231 Parathyroid Glands, 233 Pancreas, 233 Adrenal Glands, 236 Ovaries, 242 Contents xiii Testes, 243 Other Hormones, 243 Mechanisms of Hormone Action, 244 Aging and the Endocrine System, 245 CHAPTER 11 Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .250 Characteristics of Blood, 252 Plasma, 252 Blood Cells, 254 CHAPTER 12 The Heart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .272 Location and Pericardial Membranes, 274 Chambers—Vessels and Valves, 274 Coronary Vessels, 277 Cardiac Cycle and Heart Sounds, 278 Cardiac Conduction Pathway, 279 Heart Rate, 283 Cardiac Output, 283 Regulation of Heart Rate, 284 Aging and the Heart, 286 CHAPTER 13 The Vascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .290 Arteries, 292 Veins, 292 Capillaries, 293 Pathways of Circulation, 296 Velocity of Blood Flow, 306 Blood Pressure, 307 Regulation of Blood Pressure, 310 Aging and the Vascular System, 314 CHAPTER 14 The Lymphatic System and Immunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .319 Lymph, 322 Lymph Vessels, 322 Lymphatic Tissue, 322 Immunity, 327 Aging and the Lymphatic System, 337 CHAPTER 15 The Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .342 Divisions of the Respiratory System, 344 Mechanism of Breathing, 347 Pulmonary Volumes, 351 Exchange of Gases, 354 Transport of Gases in the Blood, 355 Regulation of Respiration, 358 Respiration and Acid–Base Balance, 360 Aging and the Respiratory System, 361 xiv Contents CHAPTER 16 The Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .367 Divisions of the Digestive System, 370 Types of Digestion, 370 Oral Cavity, 370 Pharynx, 373 Esophagus, 373 Structural Layers of the Alimentary Tube, 373 Stomach, 376 Small Intestine, 378 Liver, 379 Gallbladder, 379 Pancreas, 379 Completion of Digestion and Absorption, 381 Large Intestine, 385 Other Functions of the Liver, 386 Aging and the Digestive System, 389 CHAPTER 17 Body Temperature and Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .394 Body Temperature, 396 Metabolism, 400 Aging and Metabolism, 413 CHAPTER 18 The Urinary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .417 Kidneys, 421 Formation of Urine, 424 The Kidneys and Acid–Base Balance, 428 Other Functions of the Kidneys, 429 Elimination of Urine, 431 Characteristics of Urine, 432 Aging and the Urinary System, 433 CHAPTER 19 Fluid–Electrolyte and Acid–Base Balance . . . . . . . . . . .439 Water Compartments, 442 Water Intake and Output, 443 Electrolytes, 445 Acid–Base Balance, 446 Aging and Fluid and pH Regulation, 450 CHAPTER 20 The Reproductive Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .454 Meiosis, 456 Male Reproductive System, 457 Female Reproductive System, 462 Aging and the Reproductive Systems, 470 CHAPTER 21 Human Development and Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .474 Human Development, 476 Genetics, 486 Contents xv CHAPTER 22 An Introduction to Microbiology and Human Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .496 Classification of Microorganisms, 498 Normal Flora, 500 Infectious Disease, 500 Epidemiology, 503 Methods of Control of Microbes, 504 The Pathogens, 507 Appendixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .528 A Units of Measure, 528 B Abbreviations, 530 C Normal Values for Some Commonly Used Blood Tests, 532 D Normal Values for Some Commonly Used Urine Tests, 533 E Eponymous Terms, 534 F Prefixes, Combining Word Roots, and Suffixes Used in Medical Terminology, 535 G Answers to the Illustration Questions, 539 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .547 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589 xvi Contents