Instrument engineers' handbook. / Vol. 1, Process measurement and analysis 4th ed

Contributors xiii Introduction xxi Definitions xxvii Abbreviations, Nomenclature, Acronyms, and Symbols xxxix Societies and Organizations li 1 General Considerations 1 1.1 Flowsheet Symbols and P&I Diagrams 4 1.2 Functional Diagrams and Function Symbols 31 1.3 Instrument Terminology and Performance 46 1.4 System Accuracy 78 1.5 Uncertainty Calculations 86 1.6 Configuring Intelligent Devices 93 1.7 Instrument Installation 100 1.8 Instrument Calibration 108 1.9 Response Time and Drift Testing 114 1.10 Redundant and Voting Systems 126 1.11 Instrument Evaluation 136 1.12 Binary Logic Diagrams 142 2 Flow Measurement 151 2.1 Application and Selection 156 2.2 Anemometers 173 2.3 BTU Flowmeters for Heat Exchangers 177 2.4 BTU Flowmeters for Gaseous Fuels 180 2.5 Cross-Correlation Flow Metering 183 2.6 Elbow Taps 189 2.7 Flow Switches 193 2.8 Jet Deflection Flow Detectors 198 2.9 Laminar Flowmeters 201 2.10 Magnetic Flowmeters 208 2.11 Mass Flowmeters, Coriolis 225 2.12 Mass Flowmeters—Miscellaneous 237 2.13 Mass Flowmeters—Thermal 244 2.14 Metering Pumps 251 2.15 Orifices 259 2.16 Pitot Tubes and Area Averaging Units 277 2.17 Polyphase (Oil/Water/Gas) Flowmeters 287 © 2003 by Béla Lipták viii Contents 2.18 Positive-Displacement Gas Flowmeters 294 2.19 Positive-Displacement Liquid Meters and Provers 299 2.20 Purge Flow Regulators 307 2.21 Segmental Wedge Flowmeter 310 2.22 Sight Flow Indicators 313 2.23 Solids Flowmeters and Feeders 318 2.24 Target Meters 335 2.25 Turbine and Other Rotary Element Flowmeters 337 2.26 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 357 2.27 Variable-Area, Gap, and Vane Flowmeters 362 2.28 V-Cone Flowmeter 371 2.29 Venturi Tubes, Flow Tubes, and Flow Nozzles 374 2.30 Vortex and Fluidic Flowmeters 384 2.31 Weirs and Flumes 395 3 Level Measurement 401 3.1 Application and Selection 405 3.2 Bubblers 421 3.3 Capacitance and Radio Frequency (RF) Admittance 430 3.4 Conductivity and Field-Effect Level Switches 445 3.5 Diaphragm Level Detectors 449 3.6 Differential Pressure Level Detectors 454 3.7 Displacer Level Devices 465 3.8 Float Level Devices 474 3.9 Laser Level Sensors 482 3.10 Level Gauges, Including Magnetic 486 3.11 Microwave Level Switches 497 3.12 Optical Level Devices 500 3.13 Radar, Noncontacting Level Sensors 504 3.14 Radar, Contact Level Sensors (TDR, GWR, PDS) 508 3.15 Radiation Level Sensors 514 3.16 Resistance Tapes 526 3.17 Rotating Paddle Switches 530 3.18 Tank Gauges Including Float-Type Tape Gauges 533 3.19 Thermal Level Sensors 544 3.20 Ultrasonic Level Detectors 548 3.21 Vibrating Level Switches 556 4 Temperature Measurement 561 4.1 Application and Selection 565 4.2 Bimetallic Thermometers 590 4.3 Calibrators and Simulators 594 4.4 Cones, Crayons, Labels, Paints, and Pellets 599 4.5 Fiber-Optic Thermometers 604 4.6 Filled-Bulb and Glass-Stem Thermometers 610 4.7 Integrated Circuitry Transistors and Diodes 620 4.8 Miscellaneous and Discontinued Sensors 623 4.9 Radiation and Infrared Pyrometers 630 4.10 Resistance Temperature Detectors 645 4.11 Temperature Switches and Thermostats 657 4.12 Thermistors 666 4.13 Thermocouples 673 © 2003 by Béla Lipták Contents ix 4.14 Thermowells 697 4.15 Ultrasonic and Sonic Thermometers 705 5 Pressure Measurement 709 5.1 Selection and Application 712 5.2 Accessories (Seals, Snubbers, Calibrators, Manifolds) 718 5.3 Bellows-Type Pressure Sensors 726 5.4 Bourdon and Helical Pressure Sensors 731 5.5 Diaphragm or Capsule-Type Sensors 736 5.6 Differential Pressure Instruments 743 5.7 Electronic Pressure Sensors 751 5.8 High-Pressure Sensors 762 5.9 Manometers 766 5.10 Multiple Pressure Scanners 774 5.11 Pressure Gauges 779 5.12 Pressure Repeaters 785 5.13 Pressure and Differential Pressure Switches 790 5.14 Vacuum Sensors 795 6 Density Measurement 807 6.1 Density: Applications and Selection 809 6.2 Displacement- and Float-Type Densitometers 816 6.3 Hydrometers 823 6.4 Hydrostatic Densitometers 826 6.5 Oscillating Coriolis Densitometer (Gas, Liquid, and Slurry Services) 831 6.6 Radiation Densitometers 836 6.7 Ultrasonic Sludge and Slurry Densitometers 841 6.8 Liquid/Slurry/Gas Density—Vibrating Densitometers 844 6.9 Weight-Based and Miscellaneous Densitometers 852 6.10 Gas Densitometers 857 7 Safety and Miscellaneous Sensors 865 7.1 Boroscopes 872 7.2 Electrical and Intrinsic Safety 875 7.3 Electrical Meters and Sensors 889 7.4 Energy Management Devices (Peak Load Shedding) 903 7.5 Excess Flow and Regular Check Valves 908 7.6 Explosion Suppression and Deluge Systems 912 7.7 Flame Arresters, Conservation Vents, and Emergency Vents 920 7.8 Flame, Fire, and Smoke Detectors 928 7.9 Leak Detectors 936 7.10 Linear and Angular Position Detection 944 7.11 Machine Vision Technology 951 7.12 Metal Detectors 955 7.13 Noise Sensors 958 7.14 Proximity Sensors and Limit Switches 964 7.15 Relief Valves—Determination of Required Capacity 973 7.16 Relief Valves—Sizing, Specification, and Installation 991 7.17 Rupture Discs 1018 7.18 Soft Sensors 1030 7.19 Tachometers and Angular Speed Detectors 1038 7.20 Thickness and Dimension Measurement 1045 7.21 Torque and Force Transducers 1051 7.22 Vibration, Shock, and Acceleration 1061 © 2003 by Béla Lipták x Contents 7.23 Weather Stations 1077 7.24 Weighing Systems: General Considerations 1084 7.25 Weight Sensors 1101 8 Analytical Instrumentation 1127 8.1 Analyzer Application and Selection 1144 8.2 Analyzer Sampling: Process Samples 1170 8.3 Analyzer Sampling: Stack Particulates 1189 8.4 Analyzers Operating on Electrochemical Principles 1198 8.5 Air Quality Monitoring 1207 8.6 Biometers 1222 8.7 Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Total Oxygen Demand 1224 8.8 Calorimeters 1235 8.9 Carbon Dioxide 1242 8.10 Carbon Monoxide 1245 8.11 Chlorine 1251 8.12 Chromatographs: Gas 1258 8.13 Chromatographs: Liquid 1289 8.14 Coal Analyzers 1295 8.15 Colorimeters 1299 8.16 Combustibles 1304 8.17 Conductivity Analyzers 1316 8.18 Consistency Analyzers 1323 8.19 Corrosion Monitoring 1329 8.20 Differential Vapor Pressure Sensor 1335 8.21 Dioxin Analysis 1339 8.22 Elemental Monitors 1342 8.23 Fiber-Optic Probes 1347 8.24 Fluoride Analyzers 1353 8.25 Hydrocarbon Analyzers 1358 8.26 Hydrogen Sulfide 1364 8.27 Infrared and Near-Infrared Analyzers 1369 8.28 Ion-Selective Electrodes 1388 8.29 Mass Spectrometers 1399 8.30 Mercury in Ambient Air 1407 8.31 Mercury in Water 1413 8.32 Moisture in Air: Humidity and Dew Point 1420 8.33 Moisture in Gases and Liquids 1434 8.34 Moisture in Solids 1450 8.35 Molecular Weight 1457 8.36 Nitrate, Ammonia, and Total Nitrogen 1469 8.37 Nitrogen Oxide Analyzers 1474 8.38 Odor Detection 1480 8.39 Oil in or on Water 1486 8.40 Open Path Spectrophotometry (UV, IR, FT-IR) 1493 8.41 Oxidation-Reduction Potential (ORP) 1506 8.42 Oxygen in Gases 1514 8.43 Oxygen in Liquids (Dissolved Oxygen) 1526 8.44 Ozone in Gas 1536 8.45 Ozone in Water 1540 8.46 Particulates, Opacity, Dust, and Smoke 1544 8.47 Particle Size and Distribution Monitors 1559 8.48 pH Measurement 1565 8.49 Phosphorus Analyzer 1585 © 2003 by Béla Lipták Contents xi 8.50 Physical Properties Analyzers—ASTM Methods 1589 8.51 Raman Analyzers 1606 8.52 Refractometers 1620 8.53 Rheometers 1628 8.54 Streaming Current or Particle Charge Analyzer 1637 8.55 Sulfur-in-Oil Analyzers 1641 8.56 Sulfur Oxide Analyzers 1646 8.57 Thermal Conductivity Detectors 1653 8.58 Total Carbon Analyzers 1658 8.59 Toxic Gas Monitoring 1666 8.60 Turbidity, Sludge, and Suspended Solids 1680 8.61 Ultraviolet and Visible Analyzers 1687 8.62 Viscometers—Application and Selection 1700 8.63 Viscometers—Laboratory 1708 8.64 Viscometers—Industrial 1723 8.65 Water Quality Monitoring 1744 8.66 Wet Chemistry and Autotitrator Analyzers 1755 Appendix 1765 A.1 International System of Units 1767 A.2 Engineering Conversion Factors 1777 A.3 Chemical Resistance of Materials 1799 A.4 Composition of Metallic and Other Materials 1806 A.5 Steam and Water Tables 1809 A.6 Friction Loss in Pipes 1817 A.7 Tank Volumes 1821 A.8 Directory of “Lost” Companies 1824 © 2003