Air sampling and industrial hygiene engineering

1 Air Sampling Introduction 1.1 Documentation 1.2 Sample Documentation 1.3 Competency for Sampling Technicians 1.4 Sampling Activity Hazard Analysis (AHA) 1.5 Security 1.5.1 Sample Containers—Laboratory 1.5.2 Sample Handling and Decontamination 1.5.3 Procedures for Packing and Shipping Low Concentration Samples 1.5.4 Procedures for Packing and Shipping Medium Concentration Samples 1.5.5 Chain-of-Custody Records 1.5.6 Mailing—Bulk and Air Samples 1.6 Equipment Precautions 1.6.1 Batteries 1.6.1.1 Alkaline Batteries 1.6.1.2 Rechargeable Nickel-Cadmium (Ni-Cad) Batteries 1.7 Adverse Temperature Effects 1.8 Explosive Atmospheres 1.9 Atmospheres Containing Carcinogens 2 Air Sampling Instrumentation Options 2.1 Volatile Organic Compounds 2.1.1 Photoionization Detector (PID) 2.1.1.1 Calibration 2.1.1.2 Maintenance 2.1.2 Infrared Analyzers 2.1.2.1 Calibration 2.1.2.2 Maintenance 2.1.3 Remote Collection 2.1.4 Oxygen/Combustible Gas Indicators (O2/CGI)/Toxin Sensors 2.1.4.1 Remote Probes and Diffusion Grids 2.1.4.2 Calibration Alert and Documentation 2.1.4.3 Alarms 2.1.4.4 Recommendations for Oxygen/Combustible Gas Indicators 2.1.4.5 Relative Response 2.1.4.6 Relative Response and Toxic Atmosphere Data 2.1.4.7 Special Considerations 2.1.4.8 Calibration 2.1.4.9 Maintenance 2.1.5 Oxygen Meters 2.1.6 Solid Sorbent Tubes 2.1.6.1 Calibration Procedures 2.1.7 Vapor Badges 2.1.8 Detector Tubes 2.1.8.1 Performance Data 2.1.8.2 Leakage Test 2.1.8.3 Calibration Test 2.1.8.4 Special Considerations 2.1.9 Formaldehyde 2.2 Ozone Meter 2.2.1 Calibration 2.2.2 Maintenance 2.3 Toxic Gas Meters 2.3.1 Calibration 2.4 Semivolatile Organic Compounds (SVOC) 2.4.1 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons 2.4.2 Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Creosote 2.4.3 Pesticides and PAHs—PUF 2.5 Acid Gases or Caustics 2.5.1 Impingers 2.5.2 Sorbent Tubes 2.5.3 Detectors 2.5.4 pH Litmus Paper or Meter 2.5.4.1 Calibration 2.6 Mercury Analyzer—Gold Film Analyzer 2.6.1 Jerome Mercury Analyzer 2.6.2 Survey Procedures 2.6.3 Precautions for Area Surveys 2.6.3.1 Calibration 2.6.3.2 Maintenance 2.7 Particulates—Sampled by Filtration/Impaction 2.8 Gravimetric Filter Weighing Procedure 2.9 Total Dust and Metal Fumes 2.10 Respirable Dust 2.10.1 Cyclones 2.10.1.1 Silica Respirable Dust—Cyclone Collection 2.10.1.2 Cyclone Cleaning 2.11 Inhalable Dusts 2.12 Personnel Environmental Monitors (PEMs) 2.13 Welding Fumes 2.14 Asbestos 2.15 Direct-Reading Dust Monitors 2.15.1 Condensation Nuclei Counters (CNCs) 2.15.1.1 Calibration 2.15.1.2 Maintenance 2.15.1.3 Photodetection 2.15.1.4 Calibration 2.15.1.5 Maintenance 2.15.2 Diesel Particulate Matter (DPM) 2.16 Biologicals 2.16.1 General Sampling Protocols 2.16.2 Contact and Grab Sampling 2.16.3 Reuter Central Fugal System (RCS)2.16.4 Exit Requirements 2.16.5 Static Placement Impingement 2.16.6 Bioaerosols 2.17 Radiation Monitors and Meters 2.17.1 Light Meter 2.17.1.1 Calibration 2.17.1.2 Maintenance 2.18 Ionizing Radiation 2.18.1 Ionization Detectors 2.18.1.1 Gas Proportional Detectors 2.18.1.2 Ion Chamber 2.18.1.3 GM Detector 2.18.2 Scintillation Detectors 2.18.3 Counting Efficiency 2.18.4 Monitoring for Radioactive Contamination 2.18.5 Daily Use Checks 2.18.6 Survey Instrument Calibration 2.19 Nonionizing Radiation 2.19.1 Guidance 2.19.2 Broadband Field Strength Meters 2.19.2.1 Calibration 2.19.2.2 Maintenance 3 Calibration Techniques 3.1 Calibration Requirements 3.1.1 Calibration Assurance 3.1.2 Decontamination 3.1.3 Maintenance 3.2 Manual Buret Bubble Meter Technique (Primary Calibration) 3.2.1 Bubble Meter Method 3.3 Electronic Flow Calibrators 3.3.1 Cleaning before Use 3.3.2 Leak Testing 3.3.3 Verification of Calibration 3.3.4 Shipping and Handling 3.3.5 Precautions and Warnings 3.4 Electronic Bubble Meter Method 3.5 Dry Flow Calibration 3.6 Precision Rotameter Method (Secondary) 3.6.1 Replacing the Bubble Meter with a Precision Rotameter 3.7 Span Gas 3.8 Bump Testing 4 Statistical Analysis and Relevance 4.1 Definitions 4.2 Example—Outline of Bulk Sampling QA/QC Procedure 4.3 Example—Outline of the NIOSH 7400 QA Procedure 4.3.1 Precision: Laboratory Uses a Precision of .45 4.3.2 Precision: Laboratory Uses a Precision SR That Is Better Than .45 4.3.3 Records to Be Kept in a QA/QC System4.3.4 Field Monitoring Procedures—Air Sample 4.3.5 Calibration 4.3.6 Negative Air Pressure 4.3.7 Compressor 4.3.8 Recordkeeping and Sample Storage 4.4 Sampling and Analytical Errors 4.4.1 Determining SAEs 4.4.2 Environmental Variables 4.4.3 Confidence Limits 4.5 Sampling Methods 4.5.1 Full-Period, Continuous Single Sampling 4.5.2 Full-Period, Consecutive Sampling 4.5.3 Grab Sampling 4.6 Calculations 4.6.1 Calculation Method for a Full-Period, Continuous Single Sample 4.6.2 Sample Calculation for a Full-Period, Continuous Single Sample 4.6.3 Calculation Method for Full-Period Consecutive Sampling 4.6.4 Sample Calculation for Full-Period Consecutive Sampling 4.7 Grab Sampling 4.8 SAEs—Exposure to Chemical Mixtures 5 Chemical Risk Assessment 5.1 Baseline Risk Assessment 5.2 Conceptual Site Model 5.2.1 Source Areas 5.2.2 Possible Receptors 5.3 Chemicals of Potential Concern 5.4 Human Health BLRA Criteria 5.5 Toxicity Assessment 5.6 Toxicological Profiles 5.7 Uncertainties Related to Toxicity Information 5.8 Potentially Exposed Populations 5.8.1 Exposure Pathways 5.8.2 Sources 5.9 Environmental Fate and Transport of COPCs 5.10 Exposure Points and Exposure Routes 5.11 Complete Exposure Pathways Evaluated 5.12 Ecological Risk Assessment 5.13 Data Evaluation and Data Gaps 5.14 Uncertainties 5.14.1 Uncertainties Related to Toxicity Information 5.14.2 Uncertainties in the Exposure Assessment 5.15 Risk Characterization 5.16 Headspace Monitoring—Volatiles 5.17 O2/CGI 5.18 Industrial Monitoring—Process Safety Management 5.19 Bulk Samples 6 Biological Risk Assessment 6.1 Fungi, Molds, and Risk 6.1.1 What Is the Difference between Molds, Fungi, and Yeasts? 6.1.2 How Would I Become Exposed to Fungi That Would Create a Health Effect? 6.1.3 What Types of Molds Are Commonly Found Indoors? 6.1.4 Are Mold Counts Helpful? 6.1.5 What Can Happen with Mold-Caused Health Disorders? 6.2 Biological Agents and Fungi Types 6.2.1 Alternaria 6.2.2 Aureobasidium 6.2.3 Cladosporium 6.2.4 Rhodotorula 6.2.5 Stemphylium 6.2.6 Sterile Fungi 6.2.7 Yeast 6.3 Aspergillus 6.3.1 What Color Are These Molds? 6.3.2 How Is Aspergillus Spread? 6.3.3 How Does Aspergillus Grow/Amplify? 6.3.4 What Conditions Help Aspergillus Grow/Amplify? 6.3.5 Can Mold/Fungi Make You Sick? 6.3.6 What Are the Symptoms of Aspergillosis? 6.3.7 Does Aspergillus Cause Deterioration of Materials? 6.3.8 What Happens If Aspergillus Colonies Grow inside Construction Layers? 6.3.9 How Is Aspergillus Identified? 6.3.10 How Are Levels of Aspergillus Communicated? 6.3.11 Why Do Aspergillus Colonies Look Black? 6.3.12 What Will Biotesting of the Air Show? 6.3.13 What Can Be Done to Prevent Aspergillus Growth? 6.4 Penicillium 6.4.1 What Do Samples Look Like? 6.4.2 What Species of Penicillium Are Used to Produce Antibiotics? 6.4.3 What Other Fungi Grow Where Penicillium Grows? 6.4.4 If Penicillium Grows Everywhere, What Is the Concern? 6.4.5 How Does Penicillium Enter the Body? 6.4.6 Are There Particular Species of Penicillium about Which I Should Be Concerned? 6.5 Fungi and Disease 6.5.1 Blastomyces dermatitidis 6.5.2 Coccidioides immitis 6.5.3 Histoplasma capsulatum 6.5.4 Sporothrix schenckii 6.5.5 Pathogenic Members of the Genera Epidermophyton, Microsporum, and Trichophyton 6.5.6 Miscellaneous Molds 6.5.7 Fusarium 6.6 Fungi Control 6.6.1 Ubiquitous Fungi 6.6.2 Infection 6.6.3 Immediate Worker Protection 6.6.4 Decontamination 6.6.5 Fungi and VOCs 6.6.6 Controlling Fungi 6.7 Abatement 7 Indoor Air Quality and Environments 7.1 Ventilation Design Guide 7.2 Example Design Conditions Guidance 7.2.1 Outside Design Conditions 7.2.2 Inside Design Conditions 7.3 Mechanical Room Layout Requirements 7.4 Electrical Equipment/Panel Coordination 7.5 General Piping Requirements 7.6 Roof-Mounted Equipment 7.7 Vibration Isolation/Equipment Pads 7.8 Instrumentation 7.9 Redundancy 7.10 Exterior Heat Distribution System 7.10.1 Determination of Existing Heat Distribution Systems 7.10.2 Selection of Heat Distribution Systems 7.10.2.1 AG Systems 7.10.2.2 CST Systems 7.10.2.3 Buried Conduit (preapproved type) 7.10.2.4 Buried Conduit (not preapproved type) 7.10.3 Design of Heat Distribution Systems 7.10.4 Existing System Capacity 7.10.5 General Design Considerations Identification 7.11 Thermal Insulation of Mechanical Systems 7.12 Plumbing System 7.12.1 Piping Run 7.12.1.1 Back-Siphonage 7.13 Compressed Air System 7.13.1 Compressor Selection and Analysis 7.13.2 Compressor Capacity 7.13.3 Compressor Location and Foundations 7.13.4 Makeup Air 7.13.5 Compressed Air Outlets 7.13.6 Refrigerated Dryer 7.14 Air Supply and Distribution System 7.14.1 Basic Design Principles 7.14.2 Temperature Settings 7.14.3 Air-Conditioning Loads 7.14.4 Infiltration 7.14.5 Outdoor Air Intakes 7.14.6 Filtration 7.14.7 Economizer Cycle 7.15 Ductwork Design 7.15.1 Variable Air Volume (VAV) Systems 7.15.2 Special Criteria for Humid Areas 7.15.3 Evaporative Cooling 7.16 Ventilation and Exhaust Systems 7.16.1 Supply and Exhaust Fans 7.16.2 General Items 7.17 Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing of HVAC Systems 7.18 Ventilation Adequacy 7.19 Laboratory Fume Hood Performance Criteria 7.20 Flow Hoods 7.20.1 Calibration 7.20.2 Maintenance 7.21 Thermoanemometers 7.21.1 Calibration 7.21.2 Maintenance 7.22 Other Velometers 8 Area Monitoring and Contingency Planning 8.1 Area of Influence Perimeter 8.1.1 Evaluation of Hazardous Waste/Chemical Risk Sites 8.1.2 Off-Site Characterization before Site Entry 8.1.2.1 Interview/Records Research 8.1.3 On-Site Survey 8.1.3.1 Potential IDLH Conditions 8.1.3.2 Perimeter Reconnaissance 8.1.3.3 On-Site Survey 8.1.4 Chemical Hazard Monitoring 8.1.4.1 Skin and Dermal Hazards 8.1.4.2 Potential Eye Irritation 8.1.4.3 Explosion and Flammability Ranges 8.1.5 Monitoring 8.1.6 Field Logbook Entries 8.1.7 Radiation Monitoring 8.1.7.1 Area Monitoring 8.1.7.2 Contamination Surveys 8.1.7.3 Exposure Rate Surveys 8.1.7.4 Personnel Monitoring 8.2 Evacuation Zones 8.2.1 Emergency Equipment Locations 8.2.2 Site Security and Control 8.2.3 Incident/Accident Report 8.3 Site Work Zone 8.3.1 Integrated Sampling Example 8.3.2 Field QA and QC Example 8.3.3 Invasive Work Sampling Example 8.3.4 Sampling and Initial Site Work Hazard Analysis Example 8.3.4.1 Perimeter Monitoring 8.3.4.2 Air Sampling and Monitoring Example 8.3.4.3 Water Sampling Example 8.3.4.4 Surface Soil/Sediment Sampling Example 8.4 Radiation Sites 8.4.1 Atomic Structure 8.4.2 Radioactive Decay 8.4.3 Activity 8.4.4 Decay Law 8.4.5 Half-Life 8.4.6 Types of Ionizing Radiation 8.4.6.1 Alpha Particles 8.4.6.2 Beta Particles 8.4.6.3 Gamma Rays 8.4.6.4 X-rays 8.4.7 Rules of Thumb 8.4.8 Excitation/Ionization 8.4.9 Characteristics of Different Types of Ionizing Radiation 8.4.10 Exposure (roentgen) 8.4.11 Absorbed Dose (rad) 8.4.12 Dose Equivalent (rem) 8.4.13 Effective Dose Equivalent 8.4.14 Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation 8.4.14.1 Radiosensitivity 8.4.15 Human Health Effects 8.4.15.1 Stochastic Effects 8.4.15.2 Nonstochastic Effects 8.4.16 Determinants of Dose 8.4.16.1 External Exposures 8.4.16.2 Internal Exposures 8.4.17 Sources of Exposure 8.4.17.1 Occupational Exposure 8.4.17.2 Nonoccupational Exposure 8.4.18 Exposure Limits 8.4.19 Basis of Recent Guidelines 8.4.20 Regulatory Limits for Occupational Exposure 8.4.21 Recommended Exposure Limits for Pregnant Workers 8.4.22 Radiation Risk 8.4.23 Philosophy of Current Radiation Safety Practice 8.4.23.1 Internal Radiation Protection 8.4.23.2 Protection against Ingestion 8.4.23.3 Protection against Inhalation 8.4.23.4 Protection against Absorption 8.4.24 External Radiation Protection 8.4.25 Minimizing Exposure Time 8.4.26 Maximizing Distance from Source 8.4.27 Shielding the Source 8.4.28 Emergency Procedures 8.4.28.1 Personal Contamination 8.4.28.2 Minor Spills (Microcurie Quantities of Most Nuclides) 8.4.28.3 For Major Spills (Millicurie Quantities of Most Nuclides) 9 Microcircuitry and Remote Monitoring 9.1 Continuous IAQ Monitoring in Buildings 9.1.1 IAQ Evaluations 9.1.1.1 Characterization for IAQ Assessment 9.1.1.2 Source Assessment and Remediation 9.1.1.3 IAQ Risk Assessment 9.2 Industrial/Remediation Process Monitoring 9.2.1 Process Safety Management Example Scope of Work 9.2.2 Provide List for Hazard and Operability Study 9.2.3 Process Hazard Analysis 9.2.3.1 Hazard and Operability Study 9.2.3.2 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) 9.2.3.3 Fault Tree Analysis 9.2.4 Design Analysis 9.2.4.1 Site Safety and Health Plans 9.2.4.2 Health and Safety Design Analysis (HSDA) 9.2.4.3 Drawings 9.2.4.4 Specifications 9.2.4.5 Design Analysis Example—Wastewater Treatment 10 Occupational Health—Air Monitoring Strategies 10.1 Exposure Measurements 10.2 STEL Sampling 10.3 Exposure Fluctuations 10.4 Air-Sampling Pump User Operation 10.4.1 Pump Donning 10.4.2 Pump Checking 10.4.3 Pump Doffing 10.5 Air Sampling—Asbestos 10.5.1 Sampling Prior to Asbestos Work 10.5.2 Sampling during Asbestos Abatement Work 10.5.3 Sampling after Final Cleanup (Clearance Sampling) 10.5.4 NIOSH Method 10.5.5 Air Sampling Documentation 10.5.6 Asbestos Exposure Monitoring (29 CFR 1910.1001 and 29 CFR 1926.1101) 10.5.7 Initial Monitoring 10.5.8 Historical Documentation for Initial Monitoring 10.5.9 Objective Data for Initial Monitoring 10.6 Crystalline Silica Samples Analyzed by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 10.6.1 Air Samples 10.6.1.1 Laboratory Results for Air Samples 10.6.2 Bulk Samples 10.6.3 Sample Calculations for Crystalline Silica Exposures 10.6.4 Sample Calculation for Silica Exposure 10.7 Metals—Welding 10.8 General Technique for Wipe Sampling 10.8.1 Filter Media and Solvents 10.8.2 Wipe Sampling Procedures 10.8.3 Special Technique for Wipe Sampling with Acids and Bases 10.8.4 Direct-Reading Instruments 10.8.5 Aromatic Amines 10.8.6 Special Considerations 10.8.6.1 Fluorescent Screening for Carcinogenic Aromatic Amines 10.8.6.2 Alternate Screening Methods for Aromatic Amines 11 Monitoring for Toxicological Risk 11.1 Types of Sampling 11.1.1 Long-Term Samples 11.1.2 Short-Term Samples 11.1.3 Area Samples 11.1.4 Wipe Samples 11.2 Quality Control 11.3 Exposure Evaluation Criteria 11.4 Examples of Chemicals That Require Monitoring 11.4.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 11.4.2 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) 11.4.3 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) 11.4.4 Ammonia (NH3) 11.4.5 Benzene 11.4.6 Hydrogen Cyanide or Hydrocyanic Acid (HCN) 11.4.7 Lead 11.4.8 Flammable Chemicals 11.4.9 Reactive Hazards—Oxidizers 11.4.10 Paint 11.4.11 Cleaning Supplies 11.4.12 Compressed Gases 11.5 Confined Space Monitoring 11.5.1 Entry Permits 11.5.2 Bump Testing 11.5.3 Monitoring for LEL and O2 Levels 11.5.4 Isolation 11.5.5 Confined Space—Cautionary Statements 11.5.6 Stratified Atmospheres 11.6 Welding 11.6.1 Effects of Toxic Gases 11.6.2 Ventilation 11.6.3 Ventilation in Confined Spaces during Welding 11.6.4 Fume Avoidance 11.6.5 Light Rays 11.6.6 Infrared Rays 11.6.7 Noise 11.6.8 Gas Welding and Cutting 12 Risk Communication and Environmental Monitoring 12.1 Federal Legislation 12.1.1 The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (CAAA90) 12.1.2 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act. 12.1.3 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 12.1.4 State/Local Regulations 12.2 Key Compliance Requirements 12.2.1 Steam-Generating Units [greater than 29 MW (100 MBtu/h)] 12.2.2 Steam-Generating Units [2.9 MW (10 MBtu/h) to 29 MW] 12.2.3 Fuel-Burning Facilities 12.2.4 Stationary Gas Turbines 12.2.5 Municipal Waste Combustor 12.2.6 Incinerators 12.2.6.1 Sewage Sludge Incinerators 12.2.6.2 Beryllium Incinerators 12.2.6.3 Incineration of Sewage Sludge 12.2.7 Gasoline Dispensing 12.2.8 Rotogravure Printing Presses 12.2.9 Fugitive Emissions 12.2.10 Sulfuric and Nitric Acid Plants 12.2.11 CFCs and Halons 12.2.12 Degreasing Operations 12.3 Key Compliance Definitions 12.4 Community Relations 12.4.1 Notification 12.4.2 Fact Sheets 12.4.3 Explaining Air Monitoring to the General Public 12.4.4 Employee Education 12.4.5 Public Accessibility 12.4.6 Repository 12.4.7 Dialogue Glossary of Terms