Cheese rheology and texture

Chapter 1 Cheesemaking - An Overview 1 Cheese Types 1 Cheesemaking ...... ... ... ... ... ... '" ... ... 4 Milk Pretreatment 4 Coagulation.. ...... 9 Syneresis ... ... ... 12 Shaping and Salting 15 Ripening 16 Process Cheese 26 References 27 Chapter 2 Fundamental Rheological Methods 31 Definition of Rheology 31 Basic Concepts. ... ... ... ... 31 Strain ...... 32 Stress ... ...... ... ...37 Strain Rate. ... 40 Fundamental Methods ... ..,... ... ... ... ...40 Uniaxial Compression 40 Uniaxial Tension. ... 60 Bending Test 66 Specimen with a Rectangular Cross-Section 67 Specimen with a Circular Cross-Section 68 Torsion Test 68 Vane Method ... ... 70 Stress-Relaxation Test ... ... ... ... 77 Analysis of Relaxation Behavior 81 Creep Test 83 Analysis of Creep Behavior 83 Shear Rheometry. ... ... ... ... 86 Sliding-Plates Geometry 87 Concentric-Cylinders Geometry 89 Cone-and-Plate Geometry .; 91 Parallel-Plate Geometry 94 Capillary Rheometry ... ... ... 96 Extensional Rheometry ...... ... ...... ... 100 Lubricated Squeezing Flow 101 Equations for Different Fluids in Lubricating Squeezing Flow 104 References 106 Chapter 3 Uniaxial Testing of Cheese 113 Uniaxial Compression Measurements 114 Structure and Composition Effects 130 Stress- Relaxation Measurements 148 Torsion Measurements 155 Tension Measurements ...... ... 157 Creep Measurements ... ... ... 161 Bending Measurements .. ... ... ... ... 164 Vane Measurements ... ... ...... 165 Shear Measurements ...... 169 Lubricated Squeezing Flow Measurements 173 References 175 Chapter 4 Fracture Properties of Cheese 185 Fracture Mechanics 187 Brittle Fracture 191 Griffith Criterion 193 Determination of K, 196 Fracture Tests on Cheese 196 Notch Tests 198 Cutting, Slicing, and Shredding 204 Cutting with Wire and Blade 205 Eye/Slit Formation and Growth 210 References 212 Chapter 5 Linear Viscoelasticity of Cheese 215 Mathematical Relations in Linear Viscoelasticity 215 Types of SAGS Measurements 219 Strain (or Stress) Sweep 219 Frequency Sweep .. ... 221 Temperature Sweep... 221 Time Sweep ... 223 Time-Temperature Superposition ... 224 Application of SAGS in Cheese Rheology 226 Linear Viscoelastic Region of Cheeses 226 Cheddar Cheese ... ...228 Gouda Cheese 245 Mozzarella Cheese ...... 247 Mozzarella: Time-Temperature Superposition Example 252 Feta Cheese 253 Imitation Cheese 257 Quarg Cheese. 258 Processed Cheese 259 Cox-Merz Rule ... ... ...263 References 266 Chapter 6 Nonlinear Viscoelasticity of Cheese 273 Pipkin Diagram. ... ... ...... ... ... 274 Sliding Plate Rheometer 276 Large Amplitude Oscillatory Shear Flow 278 Spectral Analysis. ... 281 Discrete Fourier Transform ... 282 Determining Material Properties 283 Amplitude Spectrum... ...... ... ... ... ... 284 Stress-Shear Rate Loops 285 Effect of Wall Slip 289 Constitutive Model for Cheese 289 Relaxation Modulus Obtained from SAOS 291 Relaxation Modulus Conforming to LAOS 293 References ... ...... ... ...... 296 Chapter 7 Cheese Texture 299 Texture Development in ..Cheese 299 Cheese Manufacturing Factors that Affect Texture 299 Textural Changes during Storage 305 Measurement of Texture ... 306 Texture Profile Analysis ... ... 308 TPA Testing of Cheese 312 Uniaxial Tests for Cheese Texture Measurement 315 Compression Test ... 315 Wedge Fracture Test 316 Torsion Test and Vane Rheometry 318 Texture Map .. ... ... ......... ... 318 Dynamic Tests. ... ... 319 Empirical Tests ;.319 Crumbliness 319 Cone Penetrometer. ... ...... ... 322 Stringiness 323 References 324 Chapter 8 Measuring Cheese Melt and Flow Properties 331 Meltability ... ... ... ... ... 331 Empirical Tests. ... ... 332 Objective Tests ... ... ... ... 343 Steady Shear Viscometry 344 Capillary Rheometry ... ... ... ... ... 345 Squeeze-Flow Rheometry.. ... ... ... 346 UW Meltmeter ...... ... ... ... 348 Viscoelasticity Index for Cheese Meltability 354 Dynamic Shear Rheometry 359 Helical Viscometry 361 ChMg~ M~lt Pr()fil~ Measurement %~ UW Melt Profiler '" 364 Determination of Melt Profile Parameters 364 Graphical Method. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 364 Modeling Melt Profile 364 Constant Temperature Test 364 Transient Temperature Test 366 Conduction Heating 369 References 372 Chapter 9 Measuring Cheese Stretchability 377 Empirical Methods 377 Instrumented Methods 378 Vertical Elongation 379 Horizontal Extension ... 387 Compression Tests 389 Helical Viscometry. ... ... ... 391 Fiber-Spinning Technique 391 The Weissenberg Effect 392 References 395 Chapter 10 Factors Affecting Functional Properties of Cheese 399 Properties of Milk ... ... ...... ... ... ... 399 Cheesemaking Procedures 401 Addition of Starter Culture and Coagulants 401 Curd Handling ... ... ...... ... ... ... 402 Cooking, Stretching, and Cooling 403 Cheese Composition ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... ... 404 Moisture Content.. ...... ... ... ...... 404 Fat Content 406 Salt Content. 409 pH '" 410 Post-Manufacturing Processes 410 Aging/Ripening 410 Freezing and Frozen Storage 413 Heat Processing 416 Other Factors 419 References 421 Index ... ...... ...... ...... 429