Oil field chemicals

Drilling Muds .......................................................... 1 Classification of Muds ........................................................ 1 Mud Compositions ............................................................. 4 Additives ............................................................................. 11 Cuttings Removal by Sweep Materials ............................. 30 Junk Removal .................................................................... 30 Drilling Fluid Disposal ........................................................ 31 Characterization of Drilling Muds ...................................... 31 2. Fluid Loss Additives ............................................. 34 Mechanism of Action of Fluid Loss Agents ....................... 34 Polysaccharides ................................................................. 39 Synthetic Polymers ............................................................ 44 3. Clay Stabilization ................................................... 58 Properties of Clays ............................................................ 58 Mechanisms Causing Instability ........................................ 61 Inhibitors of Swelling .......................................................... 63 Chemicals in Detail ............................................................ 64 4. Bit Lubricants ........................................................ 65 Refractory Metals ............................................................... 65 Natural Compounds ........................................................... 65 vi Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 5. Bacteria Control .................................................... 67 Mechanisms of Growth ...................................................... 67 Treatments with Biocides .................................................. 69 Bactericides ....................................................................... 71 Various Biocides ................................................................ 72 Bacterial Corrosion ............................................................ 76 Assessment of Bacterial Corrosion ................................... 79 Mechanisms of Microbial Corrosion .................................. 80 6. Corrosion Inhibitors .............................................. 82 History ................................................................................ 82 Classification of Corrosion Inhibitors ................................. 82 Fields of Application ........................................................... 82 Application Techniques ..................................................... 85 Analytic Procedures ........................................................... 85 Side Effects ........................................................................ 87 Amides and Imidazolines ................................................... 88 Nitrogenous Bases with Carboxylic Acids ......................... 91 Nitrogen Quaternaries ....................................................... 92 Polyoxylated Amines, Amides, and Imidazolines .............. 92 Nitrogen Heterocyclics ....................................................... 98 Carbonyl Compounds ........................................................ 99 Phosphate Esters .............................................................. 100 Silicate-based Inhibitors ..................................................... 100 Miscellaneous Inhibitors .................................................... 100 7. Scale Inhibitors ...................................................... 103 Scale Inhibition ................................................................... 103 Mathematical Models ......................................................... 104 Chemicals in Detail ............................................................ 104 Characterization ................................................................. 106 Contents vii This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 8. Gelling Agents ....................................................... 108 Basic Mechanisms of Gelling Agents ................................ 108 9. Filter-cake Removal .............................................. 120 Organic Acids ..................................................................... 120 Bridging Agents .................................................................. 121 Enzymatic Breaker ............................................................. 122 Peroxides ........................................................................... 123 Oligosaccharide ................................................................. 124 Oscillatory Flow .................................................................. 124 10. Cement Additives .................................................. 125 Basic Composition of Portland Cement ............................ 126 Special Cement Types ...................................................... 130 Classification of Cement Additives .................................... 135 Additives in Detail .............................................................. 135 11. Transport ................................................................ 152 Pretreatment of the Products ............................................. 152 Corrosion Control ............................................................... 156 Paraffin Inhibitors ............................................................... 159 Pour Point Depressants ..................................................... 159 Drag Reducers ................................................................... 160 Hydrate Control .................................................................. 162 Additives for Slurry Transport ............................................ 163 Additives for Odorization .................................................... 164 Cleaning ............................................................................. 164 12. Drag Reducers ....................................................... 166 Operating Costs ................................................................. 166 Mechanism of Drag Reducers ........................................... 167 viii Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Drag Reducers in Detail .................................................... 171 13. Gas Hydrate Control ............................................. 174 The Relevance of Gas Hydrates ....................................... 174 Inclusion Compounds, Clathrates ..................................... 174 Conditions for Formation ................................................... 177 Formation and Properties of Gas Hydrates ...................... 178 Inhibition of Gas Hydrate Formation .................................. 180 Hydrate Inhibitors for Drilling Fluids .................................. 182 14. Antifreeze Agents .................................................. 183 Theory of Action-colligative Laws ...................................... 183 Overview of Antifreeze Chemicals .................................... 184 Heat-transfer Liquids ......................................................... 185 Hydraulic Cement Additives .............................................. 191 Pipeline Transportation of Aqueous Emulsions of Oil ....... 191 Low-temperature Drilling Fluids ......................................... 191 15. Odorization ............................................................ 192 Additives for Odorization .................................................... 192 Measurement and Odor Monitoring .................................. 192 Uses and Properties .......................................................... 194 16. Enhanced Oil Recovery ........................................ 196 Waterflooding ..................................................................... 197 Caustic Waterflooding ........................................................ 197 Acid Flooding ..................................................................... 199 Emulsion Flooding ............................................................. 200 Chemical Injection ............................................................. 203 Polymer Waterflooding ...................................................... 205 Combination Flooding ........................................................ 206 Contents ix This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. Foam Flooding ................................................................... 208 Carbon Dioxide Flooding ................................................... 213 Steamflooding .................................................................... 214 In Situ Combustion ............................................................ 215 Special Techniques ........................................................... 215 Microbial-enhanced Oil-recovery Techniques ................... 217 Reservoir Properties .......................................................... 228 Soil Remediation ................................................................ 232 17. Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids .................................. 233 Stresses and Fractures ..................................................... 233 Comparison of Stimulation Techniques ............................ 234 Basic Constituents ............................................................. 235 Types of Hydraulic Fracturing Fluids ................................. 236 Characterization of Fracturing Fluids ................................ 238 Water-based Systems ....................................................... 240 Oil-based Systems ............................................................. 265 Foam-based Fracturing Fluids .......................................... 267 Fracturing in Coal-beds ..................................................... 268 Propping Agents ................................................................ 268 Acid Fracturing ................................................................... 271 Special Problems ............................................................... 272 18. Water Shutoff ......................................................... 276 Basic Principles .................................................................. 276 Chemicals for Water Shutoff .............................................. 276 19. Oil Spill-treating Agents ....................................... 292 History ................................................................................ 292 x Contents This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 20. Dispersants ............................................................ 309 Cement ............................................................................... 309 Aqueous Drilling Muds ....................................................... 311 Miscellaneous .................................................................... 315 21. Defoamers .............................................................. 316 Uses in Petroleum Technology ......................................... 316 Classification of Defoamers ............................................... 317 Theory of Defoaming ......................................................... 319 22. Demulsifiers ........................................................... 325 Emulsions in Produced Crude Oil ..................................... 325 Waterflooding ..................................................................... 326 Oil Spill Treatment ............................................................. 326 Desired Properties ............................................................. 326 Mechanisms of Demulsification ......................................... 326 Performance Testing ......................................................... 327 Classification of Demulsifiers ............................................. 328 Chemicals in Detail ............................................................