Textbook of epilepsy surgery

SECTION 1: HISTORY OF SURGERY AND RELATED FIELDS 1 1. Epilepsy surgery in Europe before the 19th century 3 D Schmidt and H-J Meencke 2. Epilepsy surgery in Asia before the 19th century 12 N-S Chu, T Hori, S-K Lee, Y Mayanagi, K Radhakrishnan, and H Shibasaki 3. Epilepsy surgery in Latin America before the 19th century 15 MG Campos 4a. The history of epilepsy surgery in the United Kingdom 24 CE Polkey 4b. Epilepsy surgery in Ireland 32 P Widdess-Walsh, N Delanty, and JP Phillips 5. Epilepsy surgery in Germany 37 A Ebner, H Stefan, B Pohlmann-Eden, and PA Winkler 6. Epilepsy surgery in France 46 P Kahane, A Arzimanoglou, A-L Benabid, and P Chauvel 7. Epilepsy surgery in Italy 54 G Avanzini and L Tassi 8a. Epilepsy surgery in Switzerland 59 HG Wieser and K Schindler 8b. Epilepsy surgery in Austria 73 C Baumgartner, T Czech, and O Schröttner 9. Epilepsy surgery in the Nordic countries 77 K Källén, H Høgenhaven, KO Nakken, and R Kalviäinen 10. The development of epilepsy surgery in the Netherlands and Belgium 84 W van Emde Boas and PAJM Boon 11. History of epilepsy surgery in the Middle- and East-European countries and Russia 97 P Halász 12. Epilepsy surgery in Canada 103 W Feindel 13. A brief history of epilepsy surgery in the United States 116 PJ Connolly, DD Spencer, and AA Cohen-Gadol 14. Epilepsy surgery in Latin America 118 J Godoy, AC Sakamoto, and ALF Palmini 15. Epilepsy surgery in Africa 125 MF Moodley and EL Khamlichi 16a. History of epilepsy surgery in Southeast Asia 130 S-H Lim 16b. Epilepsy surgery in India 134 DK Lachhwani and K Radhakrishnan viii Contents 17. Treatment of epilepsy in Australia 145 A Mohamed 18. Epilepsy surgery in Korea 148 BI Lee 19. Epilepsy surgery in Thailand 152 T Srikijvilaikul, C Locharernkul, and A Boongird 20. History of epilepsy and seizure classification 160 T Loddenkemper and HO Lüders 21. History of electroencephalography as a presurgical evaluation tool: the pre-Berger years 174 WT Blume 22. History of neuroimaging in the presurgical evaluation 177 B Diehl and P Ruggieri 23. Epilepsy surgery in literature and film 189 P Wolf and S Baxendale 24. The future of epilepsy surgery 197 F Andermann and W Harkness SECTION 2: OVERVIEW 201 25. Medical intractability in epilepsy 203 DV Lardizabal 26. Epidemiology of the intractable generalized epilepsies 207 AT Berg 27. Genetic factors contributing to medically intractable epilepsy 215 JF Bautista 28. Informed consent 220 FL Vale and S Benbadis 29. Epilepsy surgery: access, costs, and quality of life 223 MG Campos and S Wiebe 30. Epilepsy surgery: patient selection 230 H Morris, I Najm, and P Kahane 31. Exclusion criteria 238 EMT Yacubian SECTION 3: EPILEPSIES REMEDIABLE BY EPILEPSY SURGERY 243 32. Classification of epileptic seizures and epilepsies 245 HO Lüders 33. Mesial temporal sclerosis 249 HO Lüders 34. Neocortical temporal lobe epilepsy 252 A Ebner 35. Premotor and central lobe epilepsy 263 S Bauer, HM Hamer, and F Rosenow 36. Mesial frontal epilepsy 274 A Bleasel and D Dinner 37. Basal frontal lobe epilepsy 285 AV Alexopoulos and N Tandon 38. Parieto-occipital lobe epilepsy 314 V Salanova Contents ix 39. Insular epilepsy 320 J Isnard, P Ryvlin, and F Mauguière 40. Cingulate epilepsy 334 E Garzon and HO Lüders 41. Hypothalamic hamartomas 354 AS Harvey 42. Rasmussen syndrome 362 CG Bien 43. The Landau–Kleffner syndrome 369 AM Kanner, A Balabanov, TP Hoeppner, and R Byrne 44. The Lennox–Gastaut syndrome: a surgically remediable epilepsy? 384 C Dravet 45. Medically intractable epilepsies not remediable by surgery 394 NK So 46. Special characteristics of surgically remediable epilepsies in infants 400 A Gupta SECTION 4: PRE-SURGICAL EVALUATION: GENERAL PRINCIPLES 407 47. General principles of pre-surgical evaluation 409 M Carreño and HO Lüders SECTION 5: THE SYMPTOMATOGENIC ZONE 423 48. The symptomatogenic zone – general principles 425 C Kellinghaus and HO Lüders 49. Auras: localizing and lateralizing value 432 S Rona 50. Autonomic seizures: localizing and lateralizing value 443 V Nagaraddi and HO Lüders 51. Simple motor seizures: localizing and lateralizing value 450 S Noachtar and S Arnold 52. Complex motor seizures: localizing and lateralizing value 462 MM Bianchin and AC Sakamoto 53. Dialeptic seizures: localizing and lateralizing value 479 S Noachtar 54a. Special seizures: localizing and lateralizing value 488 SR Benbadis 54b. Secondary generalized tonic-clonic seizures 492 SD Lhatoo and HO Lüders SECTION 6: THE IRRITATIVE ZONE 501 55. The irritative zone: general principles 503 M Eccher and D Nair 56. Noninvasive electroencephalography evaluation of the irritative zone 512 HM Hamer 57. The irritative zone evaluated with invasive recordings 521 A Palmini 58. The significance of interictal fast ripples in the evaluation of the epileptogenic zone 530 A Bragin, RJ Staba, and J Engel Jr 59. Magnetoencephalography in the evaluation of the irritative zone 537 M Iwasaki and RC Burgess 60. Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of the irritative zone 544 K Krakow, B Diehl, and JS Duncan 61. Digital tools for reviewing the electroencephalogram: montage reformatting and filtering 550 TD Lagerlund 62. Average reference and Laplacian montages 558 TD Lagerlund 63. Automatic detection of epileptic spikes 565 P LeVan and J Gotman 64. Source localization of electroencephalography spikes 570 TN Townsend and JS Ebersole 65. Antiepileptic drug withdrawal in presurgical evaluation: advantages, disadvantages, and guidelines 580 SP Claus, DN Velis, and W van Emde Boas 66. Effects of sleep and sleep deprivation on seizures and the electroencephalography in epilepsy 588 N Foldvary-Schaefer SECTION 7: THE ICTAL ONSET ZONE 595 67. The ictal onset zone: general principles, pitfalls, and caveats 597 A Arzimanoglou and P Kahane 68. Noninvasive electroencephalography in the evaluation of the ictal onset zone 603 N Foldvary-Schaefer 69. Indications for invasive electroencephalography evaluations 614 SR Sinha, NE Crone, and RP Lesser 70. Invasive electrodes in long-term monitoring 623 GH Klem and S Nehamkin 71. Foramen ovale and epidural electrodes in the definition of the seizure onset zone 629 HG Wieser and K Schindler 72. Subdural electrodes 641 MZ Koubeissi 73. Stereoelectroencephalography 649 P Kahane and S Francione 74. DC recordings to localize the ictal onset zone 659 A Ikeda 75. fMRI in the evaluation of the ictal onset zone 667 K Hamandi and JS Duncan 76. Ictal SPECT in the definition of the seizure onset zone 675 GD Cascino and D Lachhwani 77. Automatic detection of epileptic seizures 681 FT Sun, TK Tcheng, EH Boto, BM Wingeier, TL Skarpaas, and MJ Morrell 78. ‘Preictal’ predictors of epileptic seizures 691 F Mormann, K Lehnertz, and CE Elger 79. Effect of anticonvulsant withdrawal on seizure semiology and ictal electroencephalography 702 CT Skidmore and MR Sperling 80. Zone of electrical stimulation induced seizures in subdural electrodes 706 R Schulz x Contents Contents xi SECTION 8: THE EPILEPTIC LESION 709 81. The epileptogenic lesion: general principles 711 HM Hamer and S Knake 82. Magnetic resonance imaging in epilepsy: mesial temporal sclerosis 716 GD Cascino 83. Magnetic resonance imaging in neurocutaneous syndromes 721 D Moon and A Gupta 84. Magnetic resonance imaging in epileptogenic neoplasms 730 J Tamraz and Y Comair 85. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with epilepsy 755 MA McLean, M Koepp, and FG Woermann 86a. Post-processing of the magnetic resonance imaging to better define structural abnormalities 764 S Knake, F Rosenow, and PE Grant 86b. Multimodal image processing in pre-surgical planning 771 C Vollmar, S Noachtar, and PA Winkler SECTION 9: THE FUNCTIONAL DEFICIT ZONE 779 87. The functional deficit zone: general principles 781 C Baumgartner and E Lehner-Baumgartner 88. Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy and positron emission tomography 792 A Mohamed and MJ Fulham 89. PET in neocortical epilepsies 803 HT Chugani, C Juhász, E Asano, and S Sood 90. Pre-surgical neuropsychological workup: risk factors for post-surgical deficits 817 RM Busch and RI Naugle 91. Pre-surgical psychiatric evaluations: risk factors for post-surgical deficits 826 AM Kanner and AJ Balabanov 92. Pre-surgical neuropsychological workup in children and intellectually disabled adults with epilepsy 834 U Gleissner and C Helmstaedter 93. Wada test and epileptogenic zone 844 DS Dinner and T Loddenkemper 94. Event-related potentials in patients with epilepsy 858 K Usui and A Ikeda SECTION 10: PRE-SURGICAL EVALUATION OF ELOQUENT CORTEX 869 95. Eloquent cortex and tracts: overview and noninvasive evaluation methods 871 J Reis and F Rosenow 96. Noninvasive tests to define lateralization or localization of the motor area 881 R Matsumoto and H Shibasaki 97. Noninvasive tests to define lateralization or localization of memory 889 EB Geller and C Santschi SECTION 11: THE EPILEPTOGENIC ZONE 897 98. The epileptogenic zone: general principles 899 KM Klein and F Rosenow 99. Future methods for the direct assessment of the epileptogenic zone 902 J Engel Jr xii Contents SECTION 12: THE PATIENT MANAGEMENT MEETING 909 100. The patient management conference 911 M Carreño and HO Lüders SECTION 13: SURGICAL TECHNIQUES FOR PLACEMENT OF INTRACRANIAL ELECTRODES 921 101. Anesthesia for epilepsy surgery 923 M Lotto and A Schubert 102. Placement of subdural grids 931 F Salazar and WE Bingaman 103. Placement of depth electrodes 938 L Mulligan, K Vives, and D Spencer 104. Stereoelectroencephalography 945 D Hoffmann, GL Russo, and M Cossu SECTION 14: CORTICAL MAPPING AND ELECTROCORTICOGRAPHY 961 105. General principles of cortical mapping by electrical stimulation 963 SU Schüle, C McIntyre, and HO Lüders 106. Cortical mapping by electrical stimulation of subdural electrodes: primary somatosensory and motor areas 978 AS Tanner and HO Lüders 107. Cortical mapping by electric stimulation of subdural electrodes: negative motor areas 983 P Smyth 108. Cortical mapping by electrical stimulation of subdural electrodes: supplementary sensorimotor area in humans 991 DS Dinner and HO Lüders 109. Cortical mapping by electrical stimulation of subdural electrodes: language areas 1001 N Tandon 110. Cortical mapping by electrical stimulation: other eloquent areas 1016 M Hoppe 111. The role of electroencephalogram and magnetoencephalography synchrony in defining eloquent cortex 1026 G Kalamangalam and M Iwasaki 112. Cortical mapping using evoked potentials and Bereitschaftspotentials 1036 A Ikeda and H Shibasaki 113a. Cortico-cortical evoked potentials to define eloquent cortex 1049 R Matsumoto and DR Nair 113b. Cortical mapping by intra-operative optical imaging 1060 MM Haglund and DW Hochman 114. Functional localization of the cortex with depth electrodes 1068 J-P Vignal and P Chauvel 115. Intraoperative cortical mapping and intraoperative electrocorticography 1073 DR Nair and I Najm SECTION 15: RESECTIVE SURGICAL PROCEDURES FOR EPILEPSY 1081 116. Resective surgical techniques: mesial temporal lobe epilepsy 1083 DK Binder and J Schramm 117. Resective neocortical techniques in adults 1093 EO Richter and SN Roper Contents xiii 118. Epilepsy and vascular malformations: spectrum of lesions and strategies for management 1098 P Jabbour and I Awad 119. Resective neocortical techniques in children 1110 F Villarejo 120. Hemispherectomy techniques 1121 SJ Nagel, SK Elbabaa, EJ Hadar, and WE Bingaman SECTION 16: NONRESECTIVE SURGICAL PROCEDURES AND ELECTRICAL OR MAGNETIC STIMULATION FOR EPILEPSY TREATMENT 1131 121. Experimental multiple subpial transection: is it still indicated? 1133 T Tanaka, A Hodozuka, K Hashizume, M Kunimoto, and S Takebayashi 122a. Multiple subpial transections 1138 W Harkness 122b. Nonresective surgical procedures and electrical or magnetic stimulation for epilepsy treatment mutiple hippocampal transection 1149 H Shmizu 122c. Surgical disconnections of the epileptic zone as an alternative to lobectomy in pharmacoresistent epilepsy 1155 AL Benabid, S Chabardès, E Seigneuret, D Hoffmann, L Minotti, P Kahane, S Grand, and JF LeBas 123. Corpus callosotomy 1163 G Morrison and M Duchowny 124. Radiosurgical treatment of epilepsy 1173 I Yang and NM Barbaro 125. Vagal nerve stimulation: experimental data 1179 S Chabardès, I Najm, and HO Lüders 126. Vagal nerve stimulation: surgical technique and complications 1184 WE Bingaman 127. Vagus nerve stimulation: human studies 1188 T Loddenkemper and AV Alexopoulos 128. Experimental evidence for the involvement of the basal ganglia in the control of epilepsy 1201 C Deransart and A Depaulis 129. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation 1208 F Tergau and BJ Steinhoff SECTION 17: SURGICAL OUTCOME 1221 130. Mesial temporal lobectomy: post-surgical seizure frequency 1223 L Jehi 131. Resective surgery in children 1236 T Loddenkemper and E Wyllie 132. Hemispherectomy: post-surgical seizure frequency 1249 I Tuxhorn, H Holthausen, P Kotagal, and H Pannek 133a. Psychiatric outcome of epilepsy surgery 1254 AM Kanner and AJ Balabanov 133b. Sudden unexpected death in epileptic patients after epilepsy surgery 1263 D Schmidt and P Ryvlin 134. Psychosocial outcome and quality of life outcome 1269 NK So and CB Dodrill xiv Contents 135. Neuropsychological outcome 1277 WB Barr 136. Temporal lobe epilepsy surgery: surgical complications 1288 D Sasaki-Adams and EJ Hadar 137. Neocortical focal epilepsy surgery: surgical complications 1300 JA González-Martínez and WE Bingaman SECTION 18: POST-SURGICAL MANAGEMENT 1307 138. Early post-surgical management of patients with epilepsy 1309 I Melamed and AA Cohen-Gadol 139. Post-surgical pharmacotherapy: discontinuation of anticonvulsants 1313 AS Tanner and D Schmidt 140. Post-surgical rehabilitation 1319 R Thorbecke and B Hötger SECTION 19: NEUROPATHOLOGY AND RESEARCH RELATED TO EPILEPSY SURGERY 1329 141. Neuropathology of mesial temporal sclerosis 1331 I Blümcke 142. Pathology of neocortical epilepsy 1338 M Thom and S Sisodiya 143. Pathology of malformations of cortical development 1349 R Spreafico and AJ Becker 144. Pathology of neurocutaneous abnormalities, vascular abnormalities: post-infectious and post-traumatic pathologies associated with epilepsy 1359 I Blümcke and M Hildebrandt 145. Pathology of epileptogenic neoplasms 1373 RA Prayson 146. In vitro neurophysiological studies 1384 GL Möddel and IM Najm 147. In vitro cytochemical studies in epilepsy 1397 JA González-Martínez, CQ Tilelli, and IM Najm 148. Animal models of epilepsy with special reference to models relevant for transitional research 1405 S Chabardès, I Najm, and HO Lüders SECTION 20: SURGICAL FAILURES: REOPERATION 1415 149. Surgical failures: pre-surgical evaluation 1417 CT Skidmore and MR Sperling 150. Reoperation after failed epilepsy surgery 1425 A Boongird, JA González-Martínez, and WE Bingaman SECTION 21: CASE PRESENTATIONS 1433 151. Lesional mesial temporal epilepsy: case discussions 1435 J Mani and IM Najm 152. A patient with nonlesional mesial temporal lobe epilepsy 1446 A Ray, G Kalamangalam, and HO Lüders 153. Patient with bitemporal lobe epilepsy 1456 AV Alexopoulos and HO Lüders Contents xv 154. Patient with lesional neocortical focal epilepsy 1471 B Abou-Khalil 155. Patient with nonlesional neocortical epilepsy 1476 L Tassi and GL Russo 156. Patient with extensive malformation of cortical development 1485 DK Lachhwani 157. Hemispherectomy in a patient with catastrophic epilepsy 1491 A Gupta 158. Case studies: Landau–Kleffner syndrome 1496 AM Kanner, MA Rossi, and MC Smith 159. Deep brain stimulation in a patient with medically intractable generalized seizures 1506 M Hodaie, C Hamani, D Zumsteg, DM Andrade, R Wennberg, and AM Lozano 160. Successful transcranial magnetic stimulation in a patient with medically intractable focal epilepsy 1511 F Fregni, G Thut, A Rotenberg, and A Pascual-Leone 161. Surgery in a patient with medically intractable gelastic seizures and a hypothalamic hamartoma 1518 S Mittal, JL Montes, J-P Farmer, and JD Atkinson 162. Surgery in a patient with focal epilepsy and dual pathology 1523 N Foldvary-Schaefer SECTION 22: APPENDICES 1535 163. Essentials for the establishment of an epilepsy surgery program 1537 MG Campos, HB Pomata, MA Vanegas, and AC Sakamoto 164. Classification of seizure outcome following epilepsy surgery 1545 HG Wieser and K Schindler 165. Protocol for storage and processing of brain tissue for molecular studies 1552 PB Crino