Plastics, rubber, and health

Contents Preface .............................................................................................................. vii 1 Introduction .................................................................................................1 1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................1 References ....................................................................................................3 2 Some Basic Concepts and Defi nitions ...........................................................5 2.1 Plastics and Rubbers and Health, in Brief ...........................................5 2.2 A Brief Account of ‘Chemicals’ and ‘Human Health’ ..........................6 2.2.1 Chemicals that Cause Health Hazards .....................................7 2.2.2 Carcinogen(ic)s ......................................................................14 2.2.3 Endocrine Disrupters (ECD) ..................................................17 2.3 A Final Note ......................................................................................21 References ..................................................................................................22 Appendix 2.A.1 Some Organic Indoor Pollutant Classifi cations by WHO .....................................................................................................25 Appendix 2.A.2 Some Defi nitions of Lethal and Toxic Doses and Concentrations ....................................................................................25 Appendix 2.A.3 Inherent Toxicity Levels of Chemicals Hazardous to Health (OSHA) ....................................................................26 Appendix 2.A.4 Some OSHA and ACGIH Defi nitions of Exposure Limits .....................................................................................26 3 General Issues of Toxicity for Plastics and Rubber ....................................29 3.1 Plastics and Rubber, In Brief ..............................................................29 3.1.1 Combinations of Plastics, Combinations of Rubbers .............30 Author Plastics, Rubber and Health ii 3.2 Additives ...........................................................................................31 3.2.1 Migration of Additives ..........................................................32 3.2.2 Antistatic (Electrostatic-discharge-dissipating) (ESD) Intentional Additives ..................................................36 3.2.3 Colorants ..............................................................................37 3.2.4 Curing Agents, Cure Accelerators, Crosslinkers (XL) ............39 3.2.5 Coupling Agents and Compatibilisers ....................................40 3.2.6 Foaming (Blowing) Agents ....................................................41 3.2.7 Stabilisers .............................................................................42 3.2.8 Impact Modifi ers ..................................................................48 3.2.9 Nucleating Agents ................................................................49 3.2.10 Plasticisers (Flexibilisers) .......................................................49 3.2.11 Preservatives (Antimicrobials, Biocides) ................................55 3.2.12 Processing Aids (or Polymer Processing Additives, PPA) .......56 3.2.13 Compatibilisers (Adhesion Promoters) .................................57 3.2.14 Other Intentional and Unintentional Additives ......................57 3.3 Health Hazards of Heavy Metals and Heavy Metal Ions ..................58 3.3.1 Some Elements, Common Heavy Metals and Heavy Metal Ions .................................................................59 3.4 Regulatory Bodies for Heavy Metals and Metal Ions .........................65 3.5 Toxic Chemicals from Degradation, Combustion and Sterilisation of Plastics and Rubbers ..................................................65 3.6 Effect of Migrant Compounds on Taste and Odour ...........................66 References .................................................................................................68 Bibliography ...............................................................................................72 Web Sites ....................................................................................................72 4 Toxicity of Rubber and Plastics Due to their Non-Additive Ingredients ......73 4.1 General Outline .................................................................................73 4.2 Polymers, Monomers, Oligomers ......................................................73 4.2.1 Thermopolymers/Thermoplastics ..........................................74 Contents iii 4.2.2 Thermosets and some Thermoset Composites .......................90 4.2.3 Rubbers/Elastomers ..............................................................95 4.3 Some Additional Notes on the Toxic Chemicals Evolving from Degradation, Combustion and Sterilisation of Polymers ...........97 4.3.1 On Toxics from Degradation of Polymers .............................97 4.3.2 Toxic Compounds from Combustion, Thermo-Oxidative Degradation, Sterilisation and Others ......99 References ...............................................................................................100 Some Additional References ....................................................................106 5 Plastics as Food and Packaging Materials, Rubbers in Contact with Food, and their Possible Health Effects ............................................109 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................109 5.2 Outline of Plastics Packaging and Possible Health Effects Involved ...............................................................................110 5.2.1 Why Plastics in Packaging? ..................................................111 5.2.2 Types of Plastics Used in Packaging .....................................112 5.2.3 Types and Forms of Plastics Packaging ................................112 5.2.4 Smart Packaging ..................................................................119 5.2.5 Active Packaging (Antimicrobial Packaging with Biocidal Polymers) ...............................................................120 5.3 Rubbers Used in Contact With Food and Possible Health Effects ....121 5.3.1 Some Rubber Types Used in Contact with Food ..................122 5.3.2 Issue of Monomers and Oligomers (Left) in Rubbers .........123 5.3.3 Issue of Vulcanisation Agents (and Cure Products) Left in Rubbers ....................................................................123 5.3.4 Plasticisers and Antidegradants in Rubbers .........................124 5.3.5 Migration from Food-Contact Rubbers and Some Tests ......124 References ................................................................................................125 Some Additional Related Literature .........................................................127 6 Plastics Use in Healthcare and Their Possible Health Effects ....................129 6.1 Plastics in Biomedical and Healthcare Applications .........................129 Plastics, Rubber and Health iv 6.1.1 ‘Commodity’ and ‘Specialty’ Medical Plastics ......................130 6.2 Fibre Reinforced Plastics as Medical Materials ...............................136 6.3 Direct Use of Synthetic Polymers as Drugs and Therapeutic Agents ..........................................................................136 6.4 Dental Resin Composites ................................................................136 6.5 Use of Polymers in Dialysis ..............................................................137 6.6 Ophthalmic, Prostheses and Other Applications of Medical Polymers ............................................................................137 References ................................................................................................138 7 Plastics and Rubbers Applications in Construction and Their Possible Health Effects ...................................................................141 7.1 Introduction ....................................................................................141 7.2 Indoor Air Quality and Sick Building Syndrome ..............................142 7.2.1 What is Sick Building Syndrome? ........................................143 7.2.2 Possible Sources of IAQ/Sick Building Syndrome Problems, in General, and Some Solutions ...........................144 7.2.3 Four Elements of Sick Building Syndrome ...........................145 7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) ..............................................146 7.3.1 Possible Sources of VOC .....................................................146 7.3.2 Permissable Limits for VOC Indoors ...................................147 7.4 Risk Management and Some Notes on Toxic Compounds that can be Found in Indoor Spaces ................................................148 7.4.1 Risk Management ...............................................................148 7.5 Some Notes on Toxic Materials that can be Found Indoors .............148 7.5.1 Endocrine Disrupters (ECD) and Some Suspected ECD Agents Indoors ............................................................150 7.5.2 Effect of Some Plastics, Rubbers and Wood-Related Materials on the Indoors Atmosphere in Houses .................155 7.5.3 Some Construction Applications and Related Possible Health Hazards Indoors ........................................161 References ................................................................................................167 Contents v Some Additional Related Bibliography .....................................................171 Appendix ..................................................................................................173 A-7.1 Radon Indoors ................................................................................173 8 Use of Plastic and Rubber in Various Applications and Possible Health Effects ..........................................................................................177 8.1 Plastic and Rubber Use in Sports and Leisure and Possible Health Effects ....................................................................177 8.1.1 Plastics and Rubbers as ‘Artifi cial Surfaces’ in Sports and Leisure ...............................................................177 8.1.2 Plastic and Rubber Use as ‘Clothing’ in Sports and Leisure ...............................................................179 8.1.3 Plastics and Rubbers Use in ‘Water and Motor Sports’ ......................................................................179 8.2 Automotive and Transportation Applications ..................................179 8.2.1 Why Use Plastics and Rubbers in Automotive Applications? ...................................................180 8.2.2 Which Plastic/Rubber to Use for Automotive Applications? ...................................................181 8.3 Plastic Use in Agriculture and Possible Health Effects .....................183 8.4 Plastic and Rubber in Electric and Electronics Applications, Their Health Effects ...................................................183 8.5 Outline of Plastics Use as Other Consumer Products and Possible Health Effects ..............................................................185 References ................................................................................................185 Some Additional Related Literature ..........................................................186 9 Sustainability Through Plastics and Rubbers ...........................................187 9.1 Sustainability in General ..................................................................187 9.2 The EU - Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) ..........................188 9.3 A Briefi ng on Environmental Laws and Sustainable Use of Plastics and Rubbers .............................................................189 Plastics, Rubber and Health vi 9.3.1 Plastics, Rubbers and the Environment ................................189 9.3.2 Plastics and Rubbers Waste .................................................190 9.3.3 Polymers from Natural Renewable Sources (Sustainability Through Green Polymers) ............................192 9.3.4 Sustainability Through Additives ........................................194 References ...............................................................................................195 Some Additional Related References .........................................................198 10 List of Some Health Hazard Causing Solvents, Monomers and Chemicals Common for Plastics and Rubbers ...................................199 References ................................................................................................259 Some Additional Related References .........................................................266 11 Short Lists of Some Extremely Hazardous Substances and IARC Groups 1, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4 Carcinogens Related to Plastics and Rubbers ................................................................................267 11.1 A List of Some Extremely Hazardous Substances Related to Plastics and Rubbers ...................................................................267 11.2 A Brief List of IARC Group 1 Carcinogens for Chemicals Related to Plastics and Rubbers .......................................................268 11.3 A Brief List of IARC Group 2A Carcinogens for Chemicals Related to Plastics and Rubbers .......................................................268 11.5 A Brief List of IARC Group 3 Carcinogens for Chemicals Related to Plastics and Rubbers .......................................................269 11.6 A Brief List of IARC Group 4 Carcinogens for Chemicals Related to Plastics and Rubbers .......................................................270 Appendix ..................................................................................................271 Website .....................................................................................................271 Company/Organisation ............................................................................271 Glossary ...................................................................................................275 Abbreviations .................................................................................................291 Index ..............................................................................................................305