Air pollution and health in rapidly developing countries

ist of Figures viii List of Tables x List of Contributors xii Preface xxi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xxiii Acknowledgements xxvii Introduction: Air Pollution and Health in Developing Countries – The Context 1 Frank Murray and Gordon McGranahan Objectives 1 Air Pollution in its Historical Context 2 Types and Sources of Air Pollution 5 Policies and Development of Standards 9 Summary of the Contents 15 1 Health-damaging Air Pollution: A Matter of Scale 21 Kirk R Smith and Sameer Akbar Introduction 21 Risk Transition 22 Environmental Pathway Analysis 23 Exposure Assessment 25 Major Cross-scale Effects 28 Concluding Remarks 33 2 Air Pollution and Health – Studies in the Americas and Europe 35 Morton Lippmann Introduction 35 Health Effects of Ozone (O3) 37 Health Effects of Particulate Matter (PM) 39 Health Effects of Diesel Engine Exhaust 44 Discussion and Conclusions 46 3 Air Pollution and Health in Developing Countries: A Review of Epidemiological Evidence 49 Isabelle Romieu and Mauricio Hernandez-Avila Introduction 50 Global Concentration Patterns of Outdoor Air Pollution 51 Health Effects of Particulate Matter and Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) 52 Health Effects of Ozone 56 Health Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide 58 Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide 58 Health Effects of Lead 59 Conclusions 62 4 Local Ambient Air Quality Management 68 Dietrich Schwela Introduction 69 Use of WHO Guidelines for Air Quality in Local Air Quality Management 77 Enforcement of Air Quality Standards: Clean Air Implementation Plans 81 Urban Air Quality Management in Europe 82 5 Rapid Assessment of Air Pollution and Health: Making Optimal Use of Data for Policy- and Decision-making 89 Yasmin von Schirnding Introduction 90 Rapid Epidemiological Assessment 91 Individual Level Assessment Methods 94 Group Level Assessment Methods 96 Risk Assessment 99 Collection of Individual and Aggregate Level Data 101 Conclusions 105 6 A Systematic Approach to Air Quality Management: Examples from the URBAIR Cities 108 Steinar Larssen, Huib Jansen, Xander A Olsthoorn, Jitendra J Shah, Knut Aarhus and Fan Changzhong Urban Air Quality Management and the URBAIR Project 108 Physical Assessment 111 Cost–benefit Analysis of Selected Measures 114 Action Plans 116 Policy Instruments and Plans for Air Quality Improvement in URBAIR Cities 117 Example: The Guangzhou Action Plan for Improved Air Quality 121 Conclusions 126 7 Indoor Air Pollution 129 Sumeet Saksena and Kirk R Smith Introduction 129 Concentrations and Exposures 131 Health Effects 134 Health Impacts 137 Knowledge Gaps and Necessary Research 138 vi AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH IN RAPIDLY DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Interventions 139 Conclusions 142 8 Vehicle Emissions and Health in Developing Countries 146 Michael P Walsh Background and Introduction 147 Vehicle Population Trends and Characteristics 148 Adverse Health Effects Resulting from Vehicle Emissions 151 Strategies to Reduce Vehicle Emissions 159 Conclusions 172 9 Air Quality in Hong Kong and the Impact of Pollution on Health 1988–1997 176 Anthony Johnson Hedley, Chit-Ming Wong, Tai-Hing Lam, Sarah Morag McGhee and Stefan Ma Background 176 Methods 179 Findings 180 Discussion 184 Conclusions 186 10 Air Pollution and its Impacts on Health in Santiago, Chile 189 Bart D Ostro Introduction 190 Epidemiological Overview 190 Studies in Santiago and their Comparability with Other Studies 191 Estimating the Quantitative Health Impacts 195 Quantitative Results 200 Control Strategies 202 11 Air Quality and Health in Greater Johannesburg 206 Angela Mathee and Yasmin von Schirnding Introduction 206 Urbanization 208 Industrialization 212 Transport and Traffic 213 Programmes and Policies 216 Index 220