Chlorine : principles and industrial practice

2. Physical Properties 3 -- 3. Chemical Properties 11 -- 4. Chlor-Alkali Process 19 -- 4.1. Brine Supply 24 -- 4.2. Electricity Supply 26 -- 5. Mercury Cell Process 29 -- 5.1. Principles 30 -- 5.2. Mercury Cells 37 -- 5.2.1. Uhde Cell 37 -- 5.2.2. De Nora Cell 39 -- 5.2.3. Olin-Mathieson Cell 40 -- 5.2.4. Solvay Cell 40 -- 5.3. Operation 40 -- 5.3.1. Brine System 40 -- 5.3.2. Cell Room 41 -- 5.3.3. Treatment of the Products 43 -- 5.3.4. Measurement 44 -- 5.3.5. Mercury Emissions 45 -- 6. Diaphragm Process 51 -- 6.1. Principles 51 -- 6.2. Diaphragm Cells 56 -- 6.2.1. Dow Cell 58 -- 6.2.2. Glanor Electrolyzer 60 -- 6.2.3. OxyTech "Hooker" Cells 62 -- 6.2.4. HU Monopolar Cells 63 -- 6.2.5. OxyTech MDC Cells 65 -- 6.3. Operation 66 -- 6.3.1. Brine System 68 -- 6.3.2. Cell Room 69 -- 6.3.3. Diaphragm Aging 71 -- 6.3.4. Treatment of the Products 71 -- 6.3.5. Measurement 74 -- 7. Membrane Process 77 -- 7.1. Principles 77 -- 7.2. Process Specific Aspects 83 -- 7.2.1. Brine Purification 84 -- 7.2.2. Commercial Membranes 92 -- 7.2.3. Power Consumption 94 -- 7.2.4. Product Quality 95 -- 7.3. Membrane Cells 95 -- 7.3.1. Monopolar and Bipolar Designs 95 -- 7.3.2. Commercial Electrolyzers 96 -- 7.3.3. Comparison of Electrolyzers 105 -- 7.3.4. Cell Room 106 -- 8. Electrodes 109 -- 8.1. Anodes 109 -- 8.1.1. General Properties of the Anodes 109 -- 8.1.2. Anodes for Mercury Cells 111 -- 8.1.3. Anodes for Diaphragm Cells 112 -- 8.1.4. Anodes for Membrane Cells 113 -- 8.2. Activated Cathode Coatings 114 -- 9. Comparison of the Processes 117 -- 9.1. Product Quality 117 -- 9.2. Economics 119 -- 9.2.1. Equipment 119 -- 9.2.2. Operating Costs 120 -- 9.3. Sodium Hydroxide and Potassium Hydroxide 122 -- 9.3.1. Sodium Hydroxide 122 -- 9.3.2. Potassium Hydroxide 129 -- 10. Other Production Processes 133 -- 10.1. Electrolysis of Hydrochloric Acid 133 -- 10.2. Chemical Processes 135 -- 10.2.1. Catalytic Oxidation of Hydrogen Chloride by Oxygen 136 -- 10.2.2. Oxidation of Hydrogen Chloride by Nitric Acid 138 -- 10.2.3. Production of Chlorine from Chlorides 138 -- 11. Chlorine Purification and Liquefaction 139 -- 11.1. Cooling 139 -- 11.2. Chlorine Purification 140 -- 11.3. Drying 142 -- 11.4. Transfer and Compression 142 -- 11.5. Liquefaction 143 -- 11.6. Chlorine Recovery 145 -- 12. Chlorine Handling 147 -- 12.1. Storage Systems 147 -- 12.2. Transport 148 -- 12.3. Chlorine Discharge Systems 151 -- 12.4. Chlorine Vaporization 152 -- 12.5. Treatment of Gaseous Effluents 153 -- 12.6. Materials 154 -- 12.7. Safety 155 -- 13. Quality Specifications and Analytical Methods 157 -- 13.1. Quality Specifications 157 -- 13.2. Analytical Methods 157 -- 14. Uses of Chlorine 159 -- 14.1. Use of Elemental Chlorine 160 -- 14.1.1. Water Disinfection 160 -- 14.1.2. Pulp and Paper 164 -- 14.2. Inorganic Nonmetal Chlorides 166 -- 14.2.1. Phosphorchlorides 166 -- 14.2.2. Sulfur Chlorides 167 -- 14.2.3. Nitrogen-Chlorine Compounds 168 -- 14.2.4. Hydrogen Chloride, HCl, and Hydrochloric Acid 169 -- 14.2.5. Oxygen Chlorine Compounds 171 -- 14.3. Metal Chlorides 174 -- 14.3.1. Titanium Chlorides 174 -- 14.3.2. Zirconium Chloride 175 -- 14.3.3. Aluminum Chloride 176 -- 14.3.4. Iron Chlorides 176 -- 14.3.5. Other Metal Chlorides 177 -- 14.4. Silicon 177 -- 14.5. Phosgene 180 -- 14.6. Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons 184 -- 14.6.1. Chloromethanes 184 -- 14.6.1.1. Monochloromethane, Methyl Chloride, CH[subscript 3]Cl 185 -- 14.6.1.2. Dichloromethane, Methylene Chloride, CH[subscript 2]Cl[subscript 2] 186 -- 14.6.1.3. Trichloromethane, Chloroform, CHCl[subscript 3] 187 -- 14.6.1.4. Tetrachloromethane, CCl[subscript 4] 187 -- 14.6.2. Chloroethanes 188 -- 14.6.2.1. Monochloroethane, Ethylchloride, C[subscript 2]H[subscript 3]Cl 188 -- 14.6.2.2. 1,1-Dichloroethane 189 -- 14.6.2.3. 1,2-Dichloroethane, EDC, C[subscript 2]H[subscript 4]Cl[subscript 2] 189 -- 14.6.2.4. 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 191 -- 14.6.3. Chloroethenes 191 -- 14.6.3.1. Vinylchloride, VCM 191 -- 14.6.3.2. 1,1-Dichloroethene, Vinylidene chloride, VDC 194 -- 14.6.3.3. Trichloroethene, TRI 195 -- 14.6.3.4. Tetrachloroethene, PER 196 -- 14.6.3.5. Chlorohydrin 196 -- 14.6.4. Other Chlorinated C[subscript 2]-Compounds 197 -- 14.6.4.1. Chloracetic Acids 197 -- 14.6.4.2. Chloroacetaldehydes 197 -- 14.6.4.3. Ethenechlorohydrin 198 -- 14.6.5. Chloropropanes 198 -- 14.6.6. Chloropropenes and Derivates, Propylene Oxide 199 -- 14.6.6.1. Chloropropenes and Derivates 199 -- 14.6.6.2. Propylene Oxide 200 -- 14.6.7. Chlorobutanes 202 -- 14.6.8. Chlorobutenes 203 -- 14.6.9. Chlorinated Paraffins 204 -- 14.7. Chlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons 205 -- 14.7.1. Nucleus-Chlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons 205 -- 14.7.1.1. Chlorinated Benzenes 205 -- 14.7.1.2. Dichlorobenzenes 206 -- 14.7.1.3. Chlorinated Toluenes 206 -- 14.7.1.4. Chlorophenols 207 -- 14.7.2. Side-Chain-Chlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons 208 -- 14.8. Chlorine Balances 209 -- 14.9. Environmental Aspects 211 -- 14.9.1. Ozone Depletion and Global Warming 212 -- 14.9.1.1. Ozone Depletion 212 -- 14.9.1.2. Global Warming 215 -- 14.9.2. Dioxins 217 -- 14.9.3. Persistent Organic Pollutants, POPs 220 -- 15. Economic Aspects 223 -- 16. Toxicology 227 -- 17. Chlorine--the Past and the Future 229.