The Handbook of Hazardous Materials Spills Technology / Ed. de M. Fingas.

Part 1 HAZARDOUS MATERIAL PROGRAMS Chapter 1 Preparedness for and Response to Accidental Marine Pollution— A Regional Perspective 1.3 1.1 Introduction / 1.3 1.2 Global Initiatives for Dealing with Accidental Marine Pollution / 1.4 1.3 UNEP’S Regional Seas Programme / 1.5 1.4 The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) / 1.7 1.5 Regional Agreements on Preparedness for and Response to Accidental Marine Pollution / 1.15 1.6 The Mediterranean Sea / 1.17 1.7 Estimates of Seaborne Traffic / 1.19 1.8 Maritime Patterns in the Mediterranean / 1.20 1.9 Ports’ System in the Mediterranean / 1.21 1.10 Hazardous Cargo Flow and Trade / 1.22 1.11 Accidental Marine Pollution in the Mediterranean / 1.22 1.12 The Emergency Protocol to the Barcelona Convention / 1.23 1.13 Role of REMPEC in Preparedness, Response, and Cooperation for Accidental Marine Pollution / 1.26 1.14 The State of Preparedness in the Mediterranean Region / 1.28 1.15 The Role of REMPEC in the Field of Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships / 1.28 1.16 Conclusion / 1.30 1.17 References / 1.30 Chapter 2 Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies at Local Level 2.1 2.1 What is APELL? / 2.1 2.2 The Objectives of the APELL Handbook / 2.2 2.3 The APELL Partners and their Responsibilities / 2.3 2.4 The APELL Process / 2.4 2.5 Community Awareness / 2.5 2.6 APELL Worldwide / 2.5 2.7 The APELL Handbook and Newsletter / 2.5 2.8 UNEP DTIE Technical Reports (Related to APELL and Technological Accidents) / 2.6 Chapter 3 Response Options for Accidents and Spills of Hazardous Materials in France 3.1 3.1 Introduction / 3.1 3.2 Transport of Hazardous Materials / 3.1 vi CONTENTS 3.3 Transport by Rail / 3.3 3.4 Water Pollution / 3.3 3.5 Statistical Analysis of the Accidents / 3.3 3.6 References / 3.4 Chapter 4 Hazardous Materials Emergencies in New Zealand 4.1 4.1 New Zealand—A Background / 4.1 4.2 The New Zealand Fire Service / 4.2 4.3 Early Chemical Fires / 4.3 4.4 Storage and Handling of Hazardous Materials in New Zealand / 4.8 4.5 Legislation Review / 4.9 4.6 Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act / 4.10 4.7 Conclusions / 4.10 Chapter 5 CHEMTREC (The Chemical Transportation Emergency Center) 5.1 5.1 Introduction / 5.1 5.2 CHEMTREC’S Response to an Emergency Call / 5.2 5.3 Medical Emergencies / 5.4 5.4 New Hazards: Resources for Incidents Involving Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) / 5.5 5.5 Product-Specific, Mutual-Aid Networks / 5.5 5.6 Emergency Services Specialists / 5.5 5.7 Training Resources / 5.6 5.8 Drills for Emergencies / 5.8 5.9 Typical CHEMTREC Incidents / 5.9 Chapter 6 SQAS: Safety and Quality Assessment Systems for the Transport/ Storage/Handling of Chemicals 6.1 6.1 Background / 6.1 6.2 Objective / 6.1 6.3 Assessment Documents / 6.2 6.4 Assessment Process / 6.2 6.5 Benefits of SQAS / 6.3 6.6 Overview of SQAS Packages / 6.3 6.7 How to Use SQAS / 6.7 6.8 References / 6.10 Chapter 7 Regulations for Transporting Hazardous Materials in France 7.1 7.1 Introduction / 7.1 7.2 Domestic Transport / 7.2 7.3 International Transport / 7.3 7.4 References / 7.4 Chapter 8 International Chemical Environment (ICE)—Emergency Response 8.1 8.1 General Concept / 8.1 8.2 Currently Operational National ICE Schemes and Centers / 8.3 CONTENTS vii Part 2 NUCLEAR EMERGENCIES Chapter 9 Response to Nuclear or Radiological Emergencies 9.3 9.1 Introduction / 9.3 9.2 Background / 9.8 9.3 Exposure Pathways / 9.12 9.4 Preparedness Requirements / 9.16 9.5 Response Requirements / 9.42 9.6 Emergency Waste Managememt / 9.66 9.7 International Conventions / 9.68 9.8 National Requirements and Guidance—United States / 9.73 9.9 Sources of Additional Guidance / 9.79 9.10 References / 9.79 Part 3 RISK ASSESSMENT Chapter 10 Risk Assessment and Management with a Focus on Releases of Hazardous Materials 10.3 10.1 Risk Assessment and Management / 10.3 10.2 Risk Analysis Techniques / 10.10 10.3 Acknowledgments / 10.48 10.4 References / 10.49 Chapter 11 Liability in Emergency Management 11.1 11.1 Introduction / 11.1 11.2 The Threat / 11.2 11.3 Liability under State Law / 11.2 11.4 Negligence: Determine If Liability Exists / 11.3 11.5 How Could Liability Arise? / 11.6 11.6 Types of Immunity from Liability / 11.6 11.7 Defenses in Liability Claims / 11.10 11.8 Determining Liability / 11.11 11.9 Types of Damages and Relief / 11.12 11.10 Indemnification of Employees and Volunteers—Who Pays? / 11.15 11.11 Federal Planning Requirements / 11.16 11.12 Role of Legal Counsel / 11.17 11.13 Conclusions / 11.17 11.14 Key Terms / 11.18 11.15 References / 11.18 Chapter 12 Risk-Based Concept for the Safety Assessment of Handling of Ammunition and Explosives by Swiss Forces and Administration 12.1 12.1 The Reasons / 12.1 12.2 The Course of Action / 12.2 12.3 The Methodological Concept / 12.3 12.4 The Regulations and Organization / 12.10 12.5 Illustrating Applications / 12.11 12.6 Benefit / 12.17 12.7 References / 12.17 viii CONTENTS Part 4 SPILL COUNTERMEASURES Chapter 13 Containment and Confinement of Hazardous Chemical Spills 13.3 13.1 Containment versus Confinement / 13.3 13.2 Confinement of Chemical Spills on Land / 13.4 13.3 Confinement of Chemical Spills on Water / 13.6 13.4 Containment of Pressure Leaks / 13.11 13.5 Containment of Nonpressure Leaks / 13.13 13.6 Conclusions / 13.16 Chapter 14 Cleanup of Chemical Spills Using Air Sparging 14.1 14.1 Introduction / 14.1 14.2 Technology Description / 14.1 14.3 Fundamental Processes /Phenomena / 14.4 14.4 System Design and Implementation / 14.13 14.5 Predictive Modeling / 14.17 14.6 Performance Assessment / 14.17 14.7 Modified/ Related Technologies / 14.22 14.8 Summary / 14.24 14.9 References / 14.24 Chapter 15 Sorbents for Chemical Spill Treatment 15.1 15.1 Sorbents and Sorption Mechanism / 15.1 15.2 Planning for Spills and Cleaning Up / 15.18 15.3 Design of Sorption Contacting Systems / 15.22 15.4 Acknowledgment / 15.41 15.5 Useful Websites / 15.41 15.6 References / 15.41 Chapter 16 Analysis of Hazardous Materials Using Equipment in Vehicle-Portable (Level 3) Spill Response Vehicles 16.1 16.1 Introduction / 16.1 16.2 Methodology / 16.2 16.3 Recent Field Deployment of the Mobile Laboratory / 16.8 16.4 Conclusions / 16.10 16.5 References / 16.10 Part 5 SPILL MODELING Chapter 17 Practical Uses of Air Plume Modeling in Chemical Emergencies 17.3 17.1 Methods / 17.3 17.2 Concentration Levels of Concern for Toxic Chemicals / 17.4 17.3 Source Term / 17.5 17.4 Evacuate or Remain in Place / 17.7 17.5 Risk Management Plans / 17.7 17.6 North American Emergency Response Guidebook / 17.8 17.7 Hand-Held Computers with Dispersion Modeling Capability / 17.11 17.8 Example Modeling of Actual Releases / 17.13 17.9 References / 17.17 CONTENTS ix Chapter 18 Spreading of Cold Dense Clouds 18.1 18.1 Introduction / 18.1 18.2 Density Calculations / 18.1 18.3 Buoyancy Change by Surface Heat Flux / 18.5 18.4 Mixing of Cold Dense Gas Clouds / 18.10 18.5 Conclusions / 18.15 18.6 References / 18.15 Chapter 19 Evaluation Methodologies for Dense Gas Dispersion Models 19.1 19.1 Introduction / 19.1 19.2 Evaluation / 19.2 19.3 Scientific Assessment / 19.3 19.4 Validation / 19.6 19.5 Evaluation Protocol / 19.12 19.6 Examples of Evaluation Exercises / 19.19 19.7 References / 19.22 Chapter 20 Modeling Oil Spills on River Systems: Evaluation of Aqueous Concentrations 20.1 20.1 Introduction / 20.1 20.2 The Dual-Phase Model / 20.2 20.3 A Sample Application / 20.5 20.4 Sensitivity Analysis / 20.9 20.5 Spatial Variations in Slick Composition / 20.17 20.6 Conclusions / 20.23 20.7 Acknowledgments / 20.24 20.8 References / 20.24 Chapter 21 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs): The Causes and Consequences—Recent Evidence 21.1 21.1 Preface / 21.1 21.2 Introduction / 21.2 21.3 Background / 21.2 21.4 Recent HSL Large-Scale Experiments / 21.4 21.5 Discussion and Conclusion / 21.12 21.6 Acknowledgments / 21.13 21.7 References / 21.13 Chapter 22 Modeling and Understanding BLEVEs 22.1 22.1 Introduction / 22.1 22.2 Description of the Phenomenon / 22.1 22.3 Conditions Required for a BLEVE to Occur / 22.6 22.4 Estimation of BLEVE Effects / 22.10 22.5 Prevention Measures / 22.20 22.6 Example Calculation of BLEVE Fireball Effects / 22.22 22.7 Nomenclature / 22.24 22.8 References / 22.26 x CONTENTS Chapter 23 U.S. DOE HAZMAT Spill Center Database 23.1 23.1 Introduction / 23.1 23.2 HAZMAT Spill Center Capabilities and Facilities / 23.2 23.3 The U.S. DOE’s HAZMAT Spill Center Database / 23.4 23.4 Database Organization / 23.4 23.5 Burro Series / 23.5 23.6 Coyote Series / 23.6 23.7 Desert Tortoise Series / 23.7 23.8 Eagle Series / 23.9 23.9 Falcon Series / 23.11 23.10 Goldfish Series / 23.12 23.11 Determination of Effectiveness of Spill Control Agents in Mitigating Vapors from Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals / 23.14 23.12 Determination of Effectiveness of Aqueous Foams in Extinguishing Chlorosilanes Fires and Vapor Suppression / 23.15 23.13 Chlorine Vapor Mitigation Tests / 23.15 23.14 Hydrogen Fluoride Suit Tests / 23.16 23.15 Chlorine and Ammonia Suit Tests / 23.16 23.16 DUPONT Mitigation Workshop—Determination of Effectiveness of Various Techniques in Mitigating Hazardous Material Spills and Training of Personnel to Mitigate Hazardous Material Spills / 23.17 23.17 DRI/WRI/EPA CO2-I Experiments / 23.18 23.18 Kit Fox Series / 23.20 23.19 References / 23.27 23.20 Additional References / 23.28 Chapter 24 Fugacity Modeling to Predict Long-Term Environmental Fate of Chemicals from Hazardous Spills 24.1 24.1 Introduction / 24.1 24.2 Fugacity, Z- and D-Values / 24.2 24.3 Environment as Compartments / 24.2 24.4 Models of Increasing Complexity / 24.3 24.5 Summary / 24.12 24.6 Acknowledgments / 24.12 24.7 References / 24.12 Chapter 25 Contaminant Concentration Fluctuations 25.1 25.1 Introduction / 25.1 25.2 The Probability Density Function and Moments / 25.3 25.3 The Role of Molecular Diffusivity / 25.5 25.4 Modeling and Experimental Validation / 25.9 25.5 Towards a Less Conservative Estimate / 25.11 25.6 Concluding Remarks / 25.13 25.7 Acknowledgments / 25.14 25.8 References / 25.14 Chapter 26 Debris Hazard from Accidental Explosions in Underground Storage Facilities: A Case Study on Modeling of Debris Throw 26.1 26.1 Introduction / 26.1 26.2 The Steingletscher Explosion and Its Evaluation / 26.2 CONTENTS xi 26.3 The Development of a New Debris Throw Model / 26.20 26.4 References / 26.41 Chapter 27 Modeling Atmospheric Dispersion of Heavier-than-Air Clouds Containing Aerosol 27.1 27.1 Introduction / 27.1 27.2 Theory / 27.3 27.3 Numerical Results / 27.5 27.4 Homogeneous Approximation / 27.12 27.5 Conclusions / 27.14 27.6 References / 27.15 Part 6 DISPOSAL Chapter 28 Disposal of Waste 28.3 28.1 Introduction / 28.3 28.2 Waste Characteristics / 28.3 28.3 Waste Transportation / 28.3 28.4 Off-Site Disposal in Landfills / 28.4 28.5 Off-Site Treatment / 28.5 28.6 Recycle /Reuse Options / 28.9 28.7 Other Treatment Options / 28.13 28.8 References / 28.13 Chapter 29 Disposal of Small-Scale Spills 29.1 29.1 Introduction / 29.1 29.2 Spill Mix for the Absorption and Coverage of Small Spills / 29.2 29.3 Disposal of Residues from Spill Cleanup / 29.3 29.4 Conclusions / 29.9 29.5 References / 29.9 Part 7 SAFETY Chapter 30 Review of Personal Protective Equipment for Spill Situations 30.3 30.1 Introduction / 30.3 30.2 The Spill Situation / 30.4 30.3 Equipment Overview / 30.5 30.4 Selection of Respirators / 30.5 30.5 Protective Clothing / 30.8 30.6 Confined Spaces / 30.16 30.7 The Personal Protection Program / 30.17 30.8 References / 30.17 Chapter 31 Risk Communication of Chemical Accidents 31.1 31.1 Introduction / 31.1 31.2 Communication of Risk / 31.2 31.3 Design and Implementation of Risk Communication / 31.4 31.4 Case Study: Risk Communication of Chemical Accidents in Baix Llobregat, Spain / 31.8 31.5 References / 31.15 xii CONTENTS Part 8 PERSPECTIVES ON SPECIFIC CHEMICALS Chapter 32 Perspectives on Specific Substances: Ammonia 32.3 32.1 Overview of Product and Industrial Uses / 32.3 32.2 Introduction / 32.6 32.3 Physical and Chemical Properties and Guidelines / 32.6 32.4 Industiral Aspects and Production in the United States, Canada, and Worldwide / 32.9 32.5 Chemistry / 32.16 32.6 Environmental Fate / 32.18 32.7 Behavior / 32.20 32.8 Human and Environmental Toxicity / 32.20 32.9 Past Spills, Lessons Learned, and Countermeasures Applied / 32.22 32.10 Environmental Concentrations and Standards / 32.24 32.11 Conclusions / 32.25 32.12 References / 32.25 Chapter 33 Perspectives on Specific Substances: Chlorine 33.1 33.1 Overview of Product and Industrial Uses / 33.1 33.2 Introduction / 33.1 33.3 Physical and Chemical Properties and Summary of Guidelines / 33.3 33.4 Industrial Aspects and Production / 33.6 33.5 Chemistry / 33.13 33.6 Environmental Fate / 33.15 33.7 Behavior / 33.16 33.8 Human and Environmental Toxicity / 33.16 33.9 Survey of Past Spills, Lessons Learned, and Countermeasures Applied / 33.16 33.10 References / 33.19 Chapter 34 Perspectives on Specific Substances: Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) 34.1 34.1 Overview of Product and Industrial Uses / 34.1 34.2 Introduction / 34.2 34.3 Physical and Chemical Properties and Guidelines / 34.4 34.4 Industrial Aspects and Production in the United States, Canada, and Worldwide / 34.9 34.5 Chemistry / 34.12 34.6 Environmental Fate and Effects / 34.13 34.7 Behavior / 34.13 34.8 Human and Environmental Toxicity / 34.17 34.9 Survey of Past Spills, Lessons Learned, and Countermeasures Applied / 34.19 34.10 Conclusions / 34.22 34.11 References / 34.22 Chapter 35 Perspectives on Specific Substances: Sulfuric Acid 35.1 35.1 Overview of Product and Industrial Uses / 35.1 35.2 Introduction / 35.2 35.3 Physical and Chemical Properties and Guidelines Summary / 35.3 35.4 Industrial Aspects and Production in the United States, Canada, and Worldwide / 35.13 35.5 Chemistry / 35.15 35.6 Behavior / 35.17 35.7 Human and Environmental Toxicity / 35.18 35.8 Survey of Past Spills, Lessons Learned, and Countermeasures Applied / 35.20 35.9 Conclusions / 35.23 35.10 References / 35.23 CONTENTS xiii Chapter 36 Perspectives on Specific Substances: Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) 36.1 36.1 Overview of Product and Industrial Uses / 36.1 36.2 Introduction / 36.2 36.3 Physical and Chemical Properties and Guidelines / 36.2 36.4 Industrial Aspects and Production in the United States, Canada, and Worldwide / 36.8 36.5 Chemistry / 36.9 36.6 Environmental Fate and Effects / 36.10 36.7 Behavior / 36.12 36.8 Human and Environmental Toxicity / 36.14 36.9 Survey of Past Spills, Lessons Learned, and Countermeasures Applied / 36.16 36.10 Conclusions / 36.18 36.11 References / 36.19 Chapter 37 Sulfur Trioxide and Oleum 37.1 37.1 Introduction / 37.1 37.2 Effects on Humans and the Environment / 37.2 37.3 Behavior on Release / 37.5 37.4 Spill Tests, Mitigation Techniques, Accidents, Lessons Learned / 37.6 37.5 Review of Previous Approaches to the Modeling of Spills / 37.10 37.6 ASTO: A New Model for Accidental Spills of Sulfur Trioxide and Oleum— Brief Description / 37.11 37.7 Discussion, Conclusions, and Recommendations for Further Investigation / 37.18 37.8 References / 37.19 Chapter 38 Perspectives on Specific Substances: Pentachlorophenol 38.1 38.1 Overview of Product and Industrial Uses / 38.1 38.2 Introduction / 38.2 38.3 Physical and Chemical Properties and Guidelines Summary / 38.3 38.4 Industrial Aspects and Production in the United States, Canada, and Worldwide / 38.9 38.5 Chemistry / 38.10 38.6 Environmental Fate and Effects / 38.10 38.7 Behavior / 38.13 38.8 Human and Environmental Toxicity / 38.17 38.9 Survey of Past Spills, Lessons Learned, and Countermeasures Applied / 38.18 38.10 Conclusions / 38.18 38.11 References / 38.18 Chapter 39 Sodium Cyanide: Properties, Toxicity, Uses and Environmental Impacts 39.1 39.1 Properties / 39.1 39.2 Toxicity / 39.2 39.3 Categorizations and Guidelines / 39.5 39.4 Industrial Uses / 39.5 39.5 Imports and Costs / 39.11 39.6 Spill Data / 39.12 39.7 Potential Complexes of Sodium Cyanide in a Spill / 39.13 39.8 Spills of Sodium Cyanide / 39.13 39.9 Neutralization of Cyanide Spills / 39.18 39.10 Conclusions / 39.20 39.11 Acknowledgments / 39.20 39.12 References / 39.20 xiv CONTENTS Part 9 CASE HISTORIES Chapter 40 Long-Range Consequences of a Major Ammonia Accident at Ionava, Lithuania, in 1989 40.3 40.1 Introduction / 40.3 40.2 Release Scenarios / 40.4 40.3 Computational Methods / 40.4 40.4 Results / 40.6 40.5 Comparison of Numerical Results and Observations / 40.8 40.6 Conclusions / 40.10 40.7 Acknowledgments / 40.10 40.8 References / 40.11 Chapter 41 Historical Analysis of Natural Gas Accidents 41.1 41.1 Introduction / 41.1 41.2 Material Involved / 41.2 41.3 Origin of the Accidents / 41.2 41.4 Distribution of Accidents According to Date / 41.3 41.5 Accident Type / 41.4 41.6 Human Damage / 41.5 41.7 General Cause of Accidents / 41.8 41.8 Economic Losses / 41.11 41.9 Ignition Source / 41.12 41.10 References / 41.12 Chapter 42 Flixborough: The Disaster and Its Aftermath 42.1 42.1 Background / 42.1 42.2 The Court of Inquiry / 42.5 42.3 Introduction / 42.7 42.4 Finite-Element Analyses / 42.10 42.5 Conclusion / 42.28 42.6 Dedication / 42.28 42.7 Acknowledgments / 42.28 42.8 References / 42.29 Chapter 43 Chemical Spills at Sea: Case Studies 43.1 43.1 Maritime Transport of Chemical Products / 43.1 43.2 Methodology / 43.2 43.3 Statistical Approach / 43.3 43.4 Events and Risks / 43.3 43.5 Response Actions and Conclusions / 43.6 43.6 References / 43.13 Part 10 CHEMICAL SPILL DATA Chapter 44 Development of a Chemical Spill Priority List for Environment Canada 44.3 44.1 Introduction / 44.3 44.2 Development of a New Priority List / 44.4 44.3 References / 44.5 CONTENTS xv Chapter 45 Searching for Information on Chemical Products on the Internet 45.1 45.1 Introduction / 45.1 45.2 Searching on the Web / 45.2 45.3 Emergency Guides / 45.2 45.4 Safety and Information Data Cards / 45.2 45.5 Searching by Specific Topic / 45.5 45.6 Specific Searching by Product /Manufacturer / 45.5 45.7 Conclusion / 45.5 45.8 References / 45.9 Index I.1