Radiation in the atmosphere, vol. 12

Editor's Preface Preface 1. Radiant Energy. The Main Concepts and Definitions 1.1. The Sun as the Source of Radiation. The Concept of Stellar Temper- 1.2. General Information on Radiant Fluxes in the Atmosphere 1.3. Main Quantitative Characteristics of a Radiation Field 1.4. Fundamental Laws of Thermal Radiation 1.5. Thermal Emission of Real Bodies 1.6. The Equation of Radiative Transfer for a Stationary Radiation Field atures References 2. Methods of Actinometric Measurements 2.1. General Characteristic of the Methods for Measurement of Radiant 2.2. Instruments for Measuring Direct Solar Radiation 2.3. Instruments for Measuring Global and Diffuse Radiation and Albedo 2.4. Instruments for Measuring Brightness and Illumination 2.5. Instruments for Measuring Radiation Balance and Effective Radiation 2.6. Main Types of Instruments for Spectral Measurements 2.7. Instruments for Measuring Atmospheric Thermal Emission 2.8. Instruments for Measuring Shortwave Radiation Fluxes Energy References vii ix 1 1 6 9 22 35 43 47 49 49 52 60 65 66 72 77 79 83 xiii xiv Contents 3. Radiation Absorption in the Atmosphere 3.1. General Principles of Selective Radiation Absorption 3.2. The Absorption Spectrum of Water and Water Vapor 3.3. The Abs,orption Spectrum of CO, 3.4. The Absorption Spectra of Ozone and Oxygen 3.5. General Characteristic of Minor Radiation-Absorbing Components of 3.6. The Integral Transmission Function of the Atmosphere for Thermal 3.7. Absorption Spectroscopy of the Atmosphere as a Method for Investigathe Atmosphere Radiation tion of the Atmospheric Composition References 4. Scattering of Radiation in the Atmosphere 4.1. The Solar Ray Path in the Atmosphere 4.2. Scattering of Radiation (General Considerations) 4.3. Rayleigh Scattering 4.4. Scattering of Radiation on Large Particles 4.5. Computation of the Attenuation in the Atmosphere due to Scattering 4.6. Elementary Theory of Radiative Transfer, Including Multiple Scattering 4.7. Radiation Scattering and the Structure of Atmospheric Aerosol References 5. Direct Solar Radiation 5.1. 5.2. Spectral Atmospheric Transparency 5.3. Energy Distribution in the Solar Spectrum outside the Atmosphere 5.4. The Solar Constant 5.5. Total Attenuation of Solar Radiation in an Ideal Atmosphere 5.6. Quantitative Characteristics of the Real Atmospheric Transparency 5.7. Some Data of Observations on the Variation of the Atmospheric 5.8. Attenuation of Solar Radiation by Clouds 5.9. Theoretical Calculations of Irradiation of the Earth’s Surface by the Sun 5.10. Temporal and Spatial Variability of Fluxes and Totals of Solar Radiation 5.11. Income of Solar Radiation on Slant Surfaces Distribution of Energy in the Solar Spectrum at the Earth’s Surface Level Transparency State References 85 86 107 123 132 139 141 144 151 161 161 169 171 180 194 200 209 212 217 217 234 245 252 260 263 283 300 304 317 342 355 Contents xv 6. Diffuse Radiation of the Atmosphere 363 6.1. Energy Distribution in the Spectrum of Diffuse Radiation 363 6.2. Angular Distribution of Diffuse Radiation Intensity 368 6.3. Fluxes of Diffuse Radiation 376 6.4. The Main Observed Regularities of the Variability of Diffuse Radiation Totals 400 References 408 7. Albedo of the Underlying Surface and Clouds 41 1 7.1. Spectral Albedo of Natural Underlying Surfaces 7.2. Albedo of Various Continental Underlying Surfaces 7.3. Albedo of Water Basins 7.4. Albedo of Clouds 7.5. Geographical Distribution of Albedo References 8. Global Radiation 41 1 422 43 1 440 444 449 453 8.1. Energy Distribution in the Spectrum of Global Radiation 453 8.2. Fluxes of Global Radiation 451 8.3. The Main Observed Regularities in the Variability of Global Radiation Totals 410 8.4. Incoming Shortwave Radiation on Oriented Slant Surfaces 485 8.5. Income of Global Radiation Under Vegetative Covers 502 8.6. Penetration of Radiant Energy into Water, Ice, and Snow 517 8.7. Illumination 531 References 532 9. Thermal Radiation of the Atmosphere 538 9.1. The Phenomenological Theory of the Transfer of Thermal Radiation in the Atmosphere 538 9.2. Approximate Transfer Equations and Their Use for Calculating Thermal Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere 546 9.3. Radiation Charts 551 9.4. Radiative Heat Transfer in Clouds 558 9.5. Effective Radiation of the Underlying Surface and the Downward At- 9.6. Angular Distribution of Intensity of Effective Radiation and Atmospheric mospheric Radiation 559 Emission over the Celestial Sphere 584 xvi Contents 9.7. Some Practical Applications of Data on the Angular Distribution of the 9.8. Distribution of Energy in the Spectrum of Effective Radiation and Down- 9.9. Emission Spectroscopy as a Means of Investigating the Structure and Intensities of Effective Radiation and Atmospheric Emission 599 ward Atmospheric Radiation 617 Composition of the Atmosphere 624 References 646 10. Net Radiation 655 10.1. Observed Regularities in Variation of Net Radiation of the Underlying 10.2. Results of Calculations of Net Radiation at the Underlying Surface 10.3. The Net Radiation of Slopes 10.4. Net Radiation and Its Components in a Free Atmosphere 10.5. Climatology of Net Radiation of the Earth 10.6. Investigations of the Earth’s Net Radiation by Means of Satellites 10.7. Statistical Features of the Net Radiation of the Earth-Atmosphere System Surface References 657 672 680 686 728 750 765 782 11. Temperature Variation in the Atmosphere Due to Radiative Heat Exchange 79 1 11.1. Equation for the Heat Inflow 79 1 795 804 Mesosphere 814 Layer of the Atmosphere 829 References 832 11.2. Methods for Calculating Radiative Heat Inflow 11.3. Results of Calculations of Radiative Flux Divergence 11.4. Radiation Factors in the Thermal Regime of the Stratosphere and 11.5. Relation between Radiative and Turbulent Heat Exchange in the Surface ADDITIONABLI BLIOGRAPHY 837 APPENDIXES 860 Author Index Subject Index 889 907