Principles of environmental science and technology : Studies in environmental science 14.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE . AN INTERDISCIPLINARY FIELD . 1 1.2 RELATION BETWEEN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY. MANAGEMENT. ECOLOGY AND MODELLIVG . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 1.4 THE ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 1.5 FOCUS ON PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE . . . . 11 1.6 PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . 13 PART A PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE CHAPTER 2 MASS CONSERVATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.1 EVERYTHING MUST GO SOMEWHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2 THRESHOLD LEVELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3 BASIC CONCEPTS OF MASS BALANCES . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2.4 PRINCIPLES OF ECOTOXICOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 2.5 LIFE CONDITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.6 THE GLOBAL ELEMENT CYCLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 2.7 OXYGEN BALANCE OF A RIVER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 2.8 THE EUTROPHICATION PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 2.9 MASS CONSERVATION IN A FOOD CHAIN . . . . . . . . . . 79 2.10 MASS CONSERVATION IN A SOCIETY . . . . . . . . . . . 82 2.11 THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.12 PLUME DISPERSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 CHAPTER 3 PRINCIPLES OF ENERGY BEHAVIOUR APPLIED TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 3.1 FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO ENERGY . . . . . . . 101 3.2 ENERGY USE AND ENERGY RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . 105 3.3 PRODUCTIVITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 3.4 ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 3.5 ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND THE GLOBAL ENERGY BALANCE . . 119 3.6 ENERGY BUDGETS OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS . . . . . . . . 130 VIII CHAPTER 4 ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 ECOSYSTEMS CHARACTERISTICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 ADAPTATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GROWTH AND SELF-REGULATION . . . . . . . . INTERACTION BETWEEN TWO OR MORE SPECIES . . ORGANIZATION OF ECOSYSTEMS . . . . . . . . DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION OF THE ECOSYSTEM pH-BUFFERING CAPACITY IN ECOSYSTEMS . . . . OTHER BUFFERING EFFECTS IN ECOSYSTENS . . . THE ECOSPHERE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . CHAPTER 5 AN OVERVIEW OF THE MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF TODAY . . 5.1 APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS . 5.2 AIR POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 PESTICIDES. AND OTHER TOXIC COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . 5.4 THE PROBLEM OF HEAVY METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 WATER POLLUTION PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 NOISE POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 SOLID WASTE POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 FOOD ADDITIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 ALTERNATIVE ENERGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PART B PRINCIPLES OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY CHAPTER 6 WATER AND WASTE WATER PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEMS OF WATER AND WASTE WATER 6.2 REDUCTION OF THE BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND . . . . . . 6.2.1 The BODg-problem and its sources . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Mechanical treatment methods . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Biological treatment processes . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 Mechanico-biological treatment systems . . . . 6.2.5 Other methods used for BOD-removal . . . . . . 6.3 NUTRIENT REMOVAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 The eutrophication problem and its sources . . 6.3.2 Chemical precipitation of phosphorus compounds 6.3.3 Nitrification and denitrification . . . . . . 6.3.4 Ammonia stripping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.5 Chlorination and adsorption on activated carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.6 Application of ion exchange for removal of nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.7 Algal ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 137 138 142 148 154 160 168 182 185 IX 6.4 REMOVAL OF TOXIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . treatment of industrial waste water . . . . industrial waste water . . . . . . . . . . . tion for treatment of industrial waste water 6.5 REMOVAL OF (HEAVY) METALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 The problem of heavy metals . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 removal of heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 The application of ion exchange for removal 6.5.4 The application of extraction for removal 6.5.5 Application of membrane processes for removal 6.4.1 The problem and source of toxic organic 6.4.2 6.4.3 6.4.4 Application of chemical oxidation and reduc- Application of chemical precipitation for Application of adsorption for treatment of The application of chemical precipitation for of heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . of heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 WATER RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.2 Softening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6.3 Disinfection processes . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER 7 THE SOLID WASTE PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 SOURCES. MANAGEMENT AND METHODS . . . . . . 7.1.1 Classification of solid waste . . . 7.1.2 Examination of mass flow . . . . . . 7.1.3 Methods for treatment of solid waste 7.2 TREATMENT OF SLUDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Sludge handling . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Characteristics of sludge . . . . . 7.2.3 Conditioning of sludge . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Thickening of sludge . . . . . . . . 7.2.5 Centrifugation of sludge . . . . . . 7.2.7 Drying and combustion 7.2.6 Digestion of sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 DOMESTIC GARBAGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Characteristics of domestic garbage 7.3.2 Separation methods . . . . . . . . . 7-3.3 Dumping ground . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.4 Compos ting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.5 Incineration of domestic garbage . . 7.3.6 Pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 INDUSTRIAL. MINING AND HOSPITAL WASTE . . . 7.4.1 Characteristics of the waste . . . . 7.4.2 Treatment methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . . . . .. .. .. .. .. 285 341 341 341 341 343 344 344 345 348 349 350 351 352 356 356 357 358 358 361 363 365 365 365 X CHAPTER 8 AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 THE PROBLEMS OF AIR POLLUTION . AN OVERVIEW . . . . . 367 PARTICULATE POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 8.2.1 Sources of particulate pollution . . . . . . . 368 8.2.2 The particulate pollution problem . . . . . . 369 pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 8.2.4 Modifying the distribution patterns . . . . . 371 8.2.5 Settling chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 8.2.6 Cyclones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 8.2.7 Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 8.2.8 Electrostatic precipitators . . . . . . . . . 382 8.2.9 Wet scrubbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385 8.2.3 Control methods applied to particulate 8.2.10 Modification of particulate characteristics . 390 THE AIR POLLUTION PROBLEMS OF CARBON DIOXIDE. CARBON HYDRIDES AND CARBON MONOXIDE . . . . . . . . . 391 8.3.1 Sources of pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . 391 8.3.2 The pollution problem of carbon dioxide. carbon hydrides and carbon monoxide . . . . 392 8.3.3 Control methods applied to carbon dioxide. carbon hydrides and carbon monoxide pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 8.4.1 The sources of sulphur dioxide pollution . . . 395 8.4.2 The sulphur dioxide pollution problem . . . . 396 8.4.4 Flue gas cleaning of sulphur dioxide . . . . . 397 THE AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM OF NITROGENOUS GASES . . . 398 8.5.1 The sources of nitrogenous gases . . . . . . . 398 8.5.2 The nitrogenous gas pollution problem . . . . 399 THE AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM OF SULPHUR DIOXIDE . . . 395 8.4.3 Control methods applied to sulphur dioxide . . 396 8.5.3 Control methods applied to nitrogenous gases . 399 INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 8.6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 8.6.2 Control methods applied to industrial air pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 8.6.3 Gas absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 8.6.4 Gas adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 8.6.5 Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 CHAPTER 9 EXAMINATION OF POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 9.2 EXAMINATION OF WATER AND WASTE WATER . . . . . . . . 409 9.2.1 Collection and preservation of samples . . . . 409 9.2.2 Insoluble material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 9.2.3 Biological oxygen demand . . . . . . . . . . . 413 systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 9.2.4 Chemical kinetics and dynamics in water 9.2.5 Analysis of organic compounds in aqueous 9.2.6 Analysis of inorganic compounds in aqueous systems . . . . . . . . . . ' ? ' ' 415 XI CHAPTER 9 (continued) 9.2.7 Bacterial and viral analysis of water . . . . 422 9.2.8 Toxicity of bioassay techniques . . . . . . . 424 9.2.9 Standards in quality control . . . . . . . . . 427 9.3 EXAMINATION OF SOLIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 9.3.1 Pretreatment and digestion of solid material . 429 9.3.2 Examination of sludge . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 9.3.3 Examination of sediments . . . . . . . . . . . 431 9.4 EXAMINATION OF AIR POLLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 9.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432 9.4.2 Meteorological conditions . . . . . . . . . . 435 9.4.3 Gaseous air pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 9.4.4 Particulate matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 9.4.5 Heavy metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 9.4.6 Hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide . . . . . . . 448 9.4.7 Biological monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . 448 APPENDIXES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487 INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507