Introduction to botany

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . k The Origin of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 The Theory of Spontaneous Generation Life Viewed Through the Microscope A Modern-day Theory TheCell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 The Cell Doctrine Mitochondria Golgi Bodies Endoplasmic Reticulum Nuclear Membrane Cell Membrane Cell Walls Chloroplasts Cilia Plastids Vacuoles A Single-celled Imposter Mitosis and Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 The Basics of Mitosis Plant Mitosis The Basics of Meiosis Aberrations in Mitosis and Cellular Composition Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Empirical and Structural Formulas Alcohols Organic Acids Amino Acids Polymers Proteins Carbohydrates Lipids Mendelian Genetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Pre-Mendelian Theorists and Theories Gregor Mendel Mendel’s Laws Mendel’s Experiments Applying Genetics DNA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 The Search for the Substance of Heredity The Structure of DNA The Functions of DNA Amino Acids Transfer RNA Enzymes Mutations in DNA Gene Repression Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 T-2 Bacteriophage Plant Viruses Physical Properties of Protoplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Composition of Protoplasm Colloids Diffusion vi + Contents Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Chapter 17 Chapter 18 Chapter 19 Chapter 20 Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Early Research Modern-day Research Chlorophyll Light Electron Transfer The Calvin Cycle The C, Plants The CAM Carbon Pathway Respiration and Fermentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 The ATP Molecule Respiration and Photosynthesis The Anaerobic and Aerobic Pathways Hydrogenation The Carbon Cycle Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Is Bacteria a Plant? The Original Bacteria Modern, Aerobic Bacteria Characteristics of Bacteria Benefits of Bacteria Hazards of Bacteria Identifymg Bacteria Bacterial Growth The Blue-green Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Primordial Ooze Characteristics of the Blue-green Algae l).pes of Blue-green Algae The Green Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 The Volvacine Line The Tetrasporine Line The Siphonous Line Green Alga or Bryophyta? - Phaeophyta: The Brown Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 Products from Brown Algae Reproduction in Brown Algae Rhodophyceae: The Red Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Bangiophycidae Floridiophycidae Other Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Xanthophyta: The Yellow-green Algae Euglenophyta Chrysophyta Pyrrophyta Acetabularia: A Green Alga Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Fungi Classification Myxomycetes Phycomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 Chytridiomycetes Zygomycetes Oomycetes The Ascomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Reproduction in Ascomycetes Fruiting Bodies Yeasts Pathogenic Ascomycetes Penicillium and Aspergillus Morels and Truffles Ergot The Basidiomycetes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 Rusts Smuts Puffballs Mycorrhiza Contents vii Chapter 21 Chapter 22 Chapter 23 Chapter 24 Chapter 25 Chapter 26 Chapter 27 Chapter 28 Chapter 29 Chapter 30 Chapter 31 Chapter 32 Fungi Imperfecti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Problems in Classification Moniliales Lichens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Reproduction in Lichens The Members of a Lichen Growth of Lichens Products from Lichens Lichens and the Doctrine of Signatures Plant Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Early Efforts at Plant Classification Carolus Linnaeus The Theory of Evolution Problems in Classification Monophyletic or Polyphyletic? System of Plant Classification What Is a Species? Bryophytes: The Liverworts, Hornworts, and Mosses . . Liverworts Hornworts Mosses Pteridophytes: The Ferns, Club Mosses, and Horsetails . . Ferns Club Mosses Horsetails Tissues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Meristematic Tissue Simple Tissues and Complex Tissues Gymnosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The First Seed Plants Classifymg the Gymnosperms Coniferales Ginkgo biloba Angiosperms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Life Cycle Lilies Comparing Angiosperms to Gymnosperms Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . In Search of Auxin Other Plant Hormones Biological Clocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Circadian Rhythms Gonyaulax polyedra Plant Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Required Minerals Determining Mineral Needs Symptoms of Improper Nutrition Stems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Woody Dicot Stem The Herbaceous Dicot Stem The Monocot Stem Modified Stems 215 221 229 235 245 255 263 275 279 283 viii + Contents Chapter 33 Chapter 34 Chapter 35 Chapter 36 Chapter 37 Chapter 38 Chapter 39 Chapter 40 Glossary Index Roo ........................................... 299 Contributors to Root Growth Root Hairs Structure of a Root Casparian Strip Root Growth Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Simple versus Compound Leaves Transpiration Leaves and Transplanting Guttation Structure of a Leaf Leaves and Plant Classification and Identification Flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317 How Flowers Are Formed Variations in Flowers Evolutionary Modifications in Flowers Fruits and Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 Forms of Fruit Seed Structure and Characteristics Functions of Seeds Variations in Seed Composition Seed Longevity Seed Germination Reproduction Other Methods of Propagation .................... 337 Division Layering Cuttings Grafting Evolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Early Changes in Thought Charles Darwin The Tenets of Darwinian Theory Other Theories of Evolution The First Organisms Prokaryotic Life Eukaryotic Life The Emergence of Seed Plants Grasses Human Life Life over Time Ecology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Plant Ecology Adaptation Environment Climate The Global-Warming Controversy Ecological Interrelationships Natural Recycling Plant Succession Plants and Human Welfare ....................... 359 Feeding an Increasing Population Other Human Uses for Plants Cultivated Plants Viruses, Bacteria, and Fungi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .