Regulating chemical risks : European and global challenges

Preface.- List of Contributors.- 1. Introduction.- PART I: Chemical Risk Assessment and Risk Communication.- 2. Risk Governance: Contemporary and Future Challenges.- 2.1 Challenges Posed by Seriousness, Complexity, Uncertainty, and Ambiguity.- 2.1.1 Seriousness.- 2.1.2 Complexity.- 2.1.3 Scientific Uncertainty.- 2.1.4 Interpretative and Normative Ambiguity.- 2.2 Conceptual Design of an Integrated Risk Governance Model.- 2.2.1 Pre-assessment.- 2.2.2 Risk Appraisal.- 2.2.3 Tolerance and Acceptability Judgement.- 2.2.4 Risk Management.- 2.2.5 Risk Communication.- 2.3 Conclusions.- References.- 3. Communicating Chemical Risks: Beyond the Risk Society.- 3.1 Introduction.- 3.2 Early Approaches to Researching Science and the Media.- 3.3 Which Risks Attract Attention, Why and Under What Conditions?- 3.4 Risk Society.- 3.5 The Brent Spar.- 3.6 The Prestige Oil Disaster.- 3.7 Conclusion: Beyond the Risk Society.- References.- 4. Framing Chemical Risks in Sweden and Poland: Journalists' Narratives and Media Texts.- 4.1 Introduction.- 4.2 Purpose.- 4.3 The Swedish and Polish Cases.- 4.4 Methods and Materials.- 4.5 Results.- 4.6 Chemicals in the Swedish Press.- 4.7 Chemicals in the Polish Press.- 4.8 Swedish Journalists' Narratives About Chemicals.- 4.9 Polish journalists' Narratives About Chemicals.- 4.10 Conclusions and Reflections.- References.- 5. REACH: What Has Been Achieved and What Needs To Be Done?- 5.1 Introduction.- 5.2 Risk Management Criteria.- 5.3 Data Requirements in REACH.- 5.4 What Needs To Be Done.- References.- 6. Improving the Value Standard of Toxicity Test Data in REACH.- 6.1 Introduction.- 6.2 Suboptimal Testing Conditions.- 6.2.1 Background.- 6.2.2 Environmental Factors of Importance for Uptake and Effects.- 6.3 Population Modelling.- 6.3.1 Available Tools.- 6.3.2 Standard Test Data To Be Used for Regulatory Modelling.- 6.4 Suggestions for Improvements of REACH.- 6.5 Concluding Remarks.- References.- 7. Testing in Aquatic Ecotoxicology: What are the Scientific Conditions for the '3R' Concept?- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Why Fsh Tests at All?- 7.3 Alternative '3R' Based Approaches in Ecotoxicology.- 7.3.1 Reduction: Acute Threshold Approach.- 7.3.2 Replacement: In Vitro Cell Based Methods.- 7.3.3 Replacement: Fish Egg/Embryo Systems.- 7.4 Current Trends in Ecotoxicological Testing.- 7.5 Conclusion: Has the '3R' Concept a Future in Ecotoxicology?- References.- 8. Chemical Risk Assessment in Toxicological Perspective.- 8.1 Data requirements for Hazard Assessment.- 8.1.1 Hazard Identification and Dose Response.- 8.1.2 Exposure Assessment.- 8.2 Risk Management.- 8.2.1 The General Approach.- 8.2.2 The Tools for Hazard Identification.- 8.2.3 Risk Assessment for Threshold Compounds.- 8.2.4 Risk Assessment for Non-threshold Genotoxic Carcinogens.- 8.3 Classification and Labelling of Carcinogens.- 8.4 Conclusion.- References.- 9. Occupational Exposure Limits in Comparative Perspective: Unity and Diversity Within the European Union.- 9.1 Introduction.- 9.2 European Community Involvement.- 9.3 Aiming for Unity.- 9.4 National Diversity.- 9.5 Scrutinising Diversity.- 9.6 Unity and Diversity.-References.- 10. Scientific Uncertainty and Science-Policy Interactions in the Risk Assessment of Hazardous Chemicals.- 10.1 Identifying Substances of High Concern.- 10.2 Uncertainty in Risk Assessments of Potential PBT/vPvB Substances.- 10.2.1 Uncertainties Identified in the Exposure Assessment.- 10.2.2 Uncertainties Identified in the Hazard Assessment.- 10.2.3 Uncertainties Identified in the Overall PBT Conclusions.- 10.3 Discussion.- 10.4 Conclusions and Recommendations.- References.- 11. Assessing Chemical Risks: Evaluating Products Rather than Substances, and the Case of Anti-fouling Paints.- 11.1 Introduction.- 11.2 Background: Anti-fouling Paints.- 11.2.1 History of Anti-fouling Paints Globally.- 11.2.2 History of Regulations in Sweden.- 11.2.3 The Situation of Today on Anti-fouling Paints in Sweden.- 11.3 The Biocidal Products Directive, REACH and Pitfalls.- 11.4 Experimental Results of Toxicity from Physically Working Paints.- 11.4.1 How Can Products Containing Basic Chemicals Be Toxic?- 11.5 Classification of Substances and Labelling of Products.- 11.6 Conclusion.- References.- PART II: Chemical Regulation: Politics, Policy and Management.- 12. Global Trends in Chemicals Management.- 12.1 Drivers for International Cooperation in Chemical Safety.- 12.1.1 Developed Countries Lead Legislation and Its Implementation.- 12.1.2 Developing Countries Suffer the Worst Effects of Chemicals on Health.- 12.1.3 Chemicals Across National Borders.- 12.1.4 Production and Use Move Towards Developing Countries.- 12.1.5 A Multitude of Chemicals May Harm Health and the Environment. 12.1.6 Reducing Differences May Help Industry, Trade and Health.- 12.1.7 Chemical Safety Helps Overall Development.- 12.1.8 A Broad Range of Stakeholders are Involved.- 12.1.9 Main Contentions: Protecting Industry vs. Funding for Developing Safety.- 12.2 Global Development of Chemical Safety.- 12.2.1 Excessively Cmprehensive Cooperation?- 12.2.2 International Coordination is Extensive.- 12.2.3 Domination by Developed Countries.- 12.2.4 Risk Reduction.- 12.2.5 Strengthening of National Capacities.- 12.2.6 Prevention of Illegal International Traffic.- 12.3 Developing Countries Start with the Most Hazardous Chemicals.- 12.3.1 The SAICM Contents and Implementation.- 12.3.2 National Profiles.- 12.3.3 National Action Plans.- 12.3.4 Chemical Safety and National Development Priorities.- 12.3.5 How to Build Capacity.- 12.4 The Future of Global Chemical Safety.- 12.4.1 Developed Countries Accomplish What They Started.- 12.4.2 Lagging Implementation, Few News Agreements, Calls for Coordination.- 12.4.3 Developing Countries Will Not Keep Up To Speed.- 12.4.4 New approaches needed to meet increasing risks.- 12.4.5 Control at the Source Instead of Cleaning Up Later.- References.- 13. Regulating Chemical Risk: REACH in a Global Governance Perspective.- 13.1 The Evolution of European Risk Regulation: the Road to REACH.- 13.1.1 Chemicals Control in the EU Before REACH.- 13.1.2 Why Reform?- 13.1.3 Negotiating and Adopting REACH.- 13.2 REACH and the Transformation of Regulatory Decision-making.- 13.2.1 Privatisation of Chemical Control Responsibilities Under REACH.- 13.2.2 Centralising Regulatory Decision-making.- 13.2.3 Understanding the Transformation of Regulatory Decision-making.- 13.3 REACH as a Model for Global Rsk Governance.- 13.3.1 Why Would Non-EU Countries Adopt REACH?- 13.3.2 Globalisation Models.- 13.4 Conclusion.- References.- 14. The Precautionary Principle in EU and U.S. Chemicals Policy: A Comparison of Industrial Chemicals Legislation.- 14.1 Chemicals and Complex Risks.- 14.2 Core Elements of the Precautionary Principle.- 14.3 The Precautionary Principle and EU Chemicals Policy.- 14.3.1 The Precautionary Principle in the EU.- 14.3.2 The Development of Chemicals Policy in the EU.- 14.3.3 The REACH Regime.- 14.3.4 REACH and the Precautionary Principle.- 14.4 The Precautionary Principle in U.S. Chemicals Policy.- 14.4.1 The Precautionary Principle in U.S. Policies.- 14.4.2 History of Chemicals Law in the U.S..- 14.4.3 The Toxic Substances Control Act.- 14.4.4 TSCA and the Precautionary Principle.- 14.5 Discussion.- References.- 15. Chemical Regulations in Central and Eastern Europe: The Pull of Transnational Markets and Associations.- 15.1 Introduction.- 15.2 The Market Logic of Harmonizing Chemical Regulations.- 15.3 Industry Associations, Policy Coalitions, and Regulatory Diffusion.- 15.4 Corporatisation of Chemical Safety and Implications.- 15.5 Conclusion.- References.- 16. Capacity Building for Chemicals Control: Legislation, Institutions, Public-Private Relationships.- 16.1 Introduction.- 16.2 Background.- 16.2.1 Chemicals Control -- an Internationally Prioritised Issue.- 16.2.2 Basic Elements of Chemicals Risk Management.- 16.3 Legislation on Product and Trade-orientated Risk Management.- 16.4 Rationale Fort Separate General Legislation on Chemicals.- 16.5 Design of Legislation on Chemicals.- 16.6 Responsibility of Enterprises.- 16.7 Capability and Capacity of Enterprises.- 16.7.1 Organisation and Expertise.- 16.7.2 Good Chemicals Control Promotes Business.- 16.8 Role of Public Institutions.- 16.9 NGOs.- 16.10 Capability and Capacity of Public Institutions.-16.11 Organisation of Public Institutions.- 16.11.1 Policy Level.- 16.11.2 Implementation and Management Level.- 16.11.3 Enforcement Level.- 16.12 Mechanisms of Financing.- 16.12.1 Costs and Gains.- 16.13 Conclusion.- References.- 17. Scientific Committees and EU Policy: The Case of SCHER.- 17.1 Introduction.- 17.2 Perspectives on the Science-policy Interface.- 17.3 Mandate and Composition of SCHER.- 17.4 The Working Process: Managing Facts and Values.- 17.5 Coping with External Pressure.- 17.6 The Political Role and Impact of SCHER.- 17.7 Conclusion.- References.- 18. Implementing Chemical Regulations: The Role of Inspectors.- 18.1 Introduction.- 18.2 The Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate and the Swedish Work Environment Authority and Their Inspectors.- 18.3 The Discretion of Inspectors.- 18.4 Vagueness in the Law (Regulations).- 18.5 Priorities of Inspection Themes and Objects.- 18.6 Compliance Strategies Used By Inspectors.- 18.7 Is Chemical Inspection an Effective Policy Instrument?- References.- CONCLUSION.- 19. Regulatory Futures in Retrospect.- 19.1 Regulatory Futures.- 19.2 The Future, As It Was.- 19.3 New Key Tensions in Chemical Regulations: Controversy.- 19.4 New Key Tensions in Chemical Regulations: Complexity.- 19.5 Conclusions.- References.- Index.